Choosing
Repeating
Positive
Agreenent
4- Figure 4.10 The special features of negotiated assessment appear to be cycles of repeating answers followed by positive affect mainly by the teacher and the pupil making choices prior to agreements being made.4.3.8 Discussion of the Flow Diagrams
Both 'negotiation' and 'teaching' in the classrooms examined, start with the teacher firing questions which the pupils are expected to answer. The apparent difference is that during teaching the teacher is likely to know the answers, whereas in negotiation the teacher is hoping that the pupil will generate at least part of the answer for him
or herself by giving suggestions and ideas. In every stage the teacher repeats statements made by the pupil. Is this to give himself time to think or to help the pupil clarify the ideas which have been put forward? Agreements do follow from slightly different cycles of interactions in every phase of the negotiation process, although they are not apparent during evaluation due to the small number of interactions analysed. They do in fact follow from initiations and answers. The agreements do not just come from the pupil. On some occasions teacher and pupil make an almost equal number of agreements, whereas on other occasions it is the pupil who agrees with the teacher. The taking of a non negotiable stance by the teacher does take place at every stage of negotiation but it is most prevalent during contracting and assessment. It is only during the negotiation of a contract that stance taking by the teacher appears to impinge upon the cycles of interactions leading to agreement. The teacher takes up non-negotiable stance about certain parts of the contract, with which the pupil, it appears, is expected to comply.
4.3.9 Review of the Analyses
The forms of analysis performed thus far have allowed us to determine several pertinent features of the negotiations taking place in this classroom. The first of these is that negotiation is not a constant feature, indeed teaching appears to take place more of the time. Content analysis showed that on the particular lesson analysed fully the following interactions took place:
■ Teaching 40% of a lesson.
■ Negotiation 39% of a lesson.
The timing of interactions has showed that not all pupils are necessarily taught or negotiated with during a particular lesson.
■ Some pupils interact with the teacher for about a third of a lesson.
■ Others are not involved in interaction with the teacher at all. The negotiation analysis schedule has allowed comparisons of two classrooms showing different styles of interaction in the IS classroom the pupils are more likely to:
■ Be involved in interactions. ■ Move around the classroom.
■ Initiate suggestions and ideas of their own. ■ Ask questions of the teacher.
The analysis has shown that the IS classroom is a place where negotiation can take place and where the teacher:
■ Makes about 60% of all the interactions.
■ Gives less direct instruction and explanation. ■ Begins and closes the negotiations.
■ Makes more initiations and suggestions. ■ Asks large numbers of questions.
■ Agrees with the pupil on more occasions. Participant observations by the T/R have shown that:
■ Pupils prepare for negotiations with the teacher. ■ Teacher and pupil negotiate a contract of work.
■ Working negotiation takes place, to overcome difficulties, plan visits and manage resources, whilst the contract is fulfilled. ■ Teacher and pupil review and evaluate work.
A comparison of the different types of negotiation and the preparation of the flow diagrams from these analyses has shown that there are cyclical processes involved where it can be seen that:
■ The teacher uses different types of question during different phases of the negotiation process.
■ The teacher and pupil are involved in making suggestions and generating ideas.
■ The teacher is prepared to take up a non-negotiable stance particularly during contracting.
■ The teacher and the pupil do make agreements but it is the pupil who is more likely to agree.
■ The teacher increases the use of positive affective behaviour as negotiations move from contracting to assessment.
■ The teacher uses the technique of listing items during the contracting phase.
■ The teacher repeats pupil statements during contracting and assessment.
Negotiation in this classroom would appear to be practised using certain techniques which are not necessarily the same as those required by the teacher who is attempting to pass on a body of knowledge to the pupils in his or her charge.
Some of the techniques highlighted in this study are summarised in the following table
A Summary of the Techniques being used in IS Negotiation ■ Accepting attitudes ■ Listening - ■ Soft bargaining - ■ Questioning - ■ Summarising - ■ Agreeing - ■ Affective behaviour
The teacher and pupil are able to accept each other as negotiators and each is prepared to consider the suggestions put forward by the other.
Teacher and pupil listen to what is being said rather than dismissing the ideas of the other outright.
The use of ideas, suggestions and initiation to stimulate discussion and persuasion rather than working through shows of power, threats and disagreements.
The use of question and answer to clarify the full meaning and content of the suggestions, including questioning the resources being used, questioning the feelings of participants, and allowing questions of choice.
Using repeating and listing to summarize what has been discussed.
Agreement by both teacher and pupil on what has been summarised and decided.
The use of mostly positive suggestions, praise etc. by the teacher to encourage the pupils to consider new possibilities.
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