Assumptions, Limitations, Scope and Delimitations

3.8.1 Assumptions

Studies involved with determining the correlation(s) between academic attainment and distinct learning styles have confirmed that children learn in different ways and that children’s success in distinct topic areas is correlated to how they learn. If children are

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taught using methods and aids that are complementary to their individual learning styles, their attainment is considerably improved (Klein et al., 2001; Cassidy, 2004). Each learning style displays identifiable characteristics. Various hypotheses have been postulated

concerning children’s learning styles. One of the models most accepted by educationalists

deals with five types of learning style: tactile, auditory, visual, read/write and kinaesthetic. The function of the four senses implicated in the learning system form the foundation of these five types of learning. The child’s preferred sense establishes the learning style.

Underlying this study are the assumptions that children have a prevailing learning style, and that a multi-sensory method of tuition will encourage and augment children’s learning

processes and so will boost their knowledge uptake and retention considerably.

3.8.2 Scope of the study

The scope of the study was limited by several factors, for example the number and size of primary schools that agreed to participate. Also the time allowed for the teaching and assessment was limited by the schools that did participate. Twenty eight questions were asked in the Delphi study.

Further detail and insight may have been achieved by asking additional questions.

However the panelists time was limited. The number of panelists in the Delphi survey also limited the scope of the study. Only eight participants completed the first round and only five completed the second round. The scope was also limited by the method of interfacing with the participants. All of the questionnaires for both rounds were manually collected and retrieved. The scope of the investigation was also constrained since the researcher did all the teaching rather than a professional teacher.

Page 107 of 308 Threats to internal

validity

Description of threat Mitigating action

History

The outcome could possibly be affected by a major influential event occurring during the intervention.

As the pre and immediate post-tests occur in the same session this is very unlikely. The final post- test happens 1 month later but this is still only a short period of time and so it remains unlikely that the internal validity would be affected.

Instrumentation / Reporting

Over the course of the intervention the validity of measurement method changes.

This is not a threat since the measure remains constant.

Regression to the mean

This could explain the outcome measure which has given a onetime extreme value which then naturally changes to a normal value.

There is no specific basis for choosing the intervention group – except for age and access. Thus regression to the mean is very unlikely.

Testing

The outcome may be affected by taking measurements such as a test.

The act of taking the before measurement (pre- test) should not affect the outcome. Care was taken in the development of the test not to include questions in one part of the test which provide answers to other parts of the test. Even if the pre- test did affect the outcome it would not affect the validity as long as the pre-test is always given.

Placebo

A non-specific effect could be caused by the intervention on the outcome independently of the main intervention component.

Very unlikely that the pupils belief in the efficacy of the intervention would cause an effect.

Hawthorne

The outcome could be affected by the involvement of outsiders independently of the main intervention component.

This could occur when teachers present at the intervention prompt pupils towards the correct answer during testing. This was mitigated by asking the teachers to desist from this during the tests and approaching them if this starts to occur.

Maturation

The outcome could be affected by the intervention group developing in ways independent of the intervention. One example would be group members increase in experience.

Since the intervention is only over 1 month this is unlikely to occur.

Dropout

The characteristics of the group change which may affect the outcome. For example some participants dropping out.

This is unlikely since I am using a school setting and therefore the population should remain reasonably static within the school year. Results were only used for pupils that had the intervention and all three tests.

Table 6. Threats to internal validity (Adapted from Robson et al., 2001; Bieger, 1998) 3.8.3 Intervention age range

As young children are the focus of this study the question arises as to whether children in infant school, age 5 and 6 years old, should take part in the intervention together with primary school children, age 7 to 11 years old.

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Threats to external validity Description of threat Mitigating action

Effect of testing The performance or responses of

participants in the study may be affected by the administration of a test.

This is unlikely – see Threats to internal validity- also since the GHS system has not yet been

implemented in the EU.

Multiple-treatment interference Where more than one intervention

session is received by participants in a study.

In this study only one intervention session is given.

Selection-treatment interference Some characteristics of the

participants, for example personality factors, prior learning and experiences, can interact with aspects of the intervention.

The participants are selected simply based on a schools’ participation. Prior learning is very unlikely as the GHS system has not been implemented in the EU yet. There could be prior experiences – for example poisoning incidents – but this should not affect the outcome validity.

Effects of experimental arrangements

As a result of participants being aware that they are in a study their performance or response is modified.

Whilst the children knew that a study was being performed they did not know whether they were in the test or control group. There could be an effect caused by wanting to perform better to a visiting teacher however this would apply to both schools and therefore any effect would not skew the results.

Experimenter effects The situation where the

performance of participants in a study is influenced, unintentionally, be the researcher.

Considerable care was taken not to influence the performance of participants in the tests

Specificity of variables How operationally defined and

adequately described the study variable are.

.

The measurement instruments have been thoroughly researched – see statistics section. The variables are simply the test scores, and mean test scores, to the questions relative to the use of traditional teaching in the control group and the use of teaching to learning styles / active learning in the experimental group.

Table 7. Threats to external validity (Adapted from Robson et al., 2001; Bieger, 1998)

The main theory for child cognitive development was produced by Jean Piaget (1928). It has been expanded more recently by Vygotsky, Bruner and others relative to language and facilitated learning but remains the principal theory of child cognitive development. In Piaget’s cognitive development theory he identified four distinct phases which were

dependent on age. These are, occurring from birth to 2 years old, the sensory motor stage; occurring from 2 years old to 7 years old - the pre-operational stage; occurring from 7

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years old to 11 years old - the concrete operational stage; occurring from 11 years old to 16 years old - the formal operations stage.

Children in the pre-operational stage are considered to be logically inadequate relative to mental operations. Children in this age range are not able to perform operations, which are mental tasks rather than physical tasks. They are very egocentric and they have difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. They also fail to understand cause and effect relationships (Jardine, 2006).

However as the concrete operational stage begins the child will start to apply new thinking to events they encounter by using cognitive operations. They can re-arrange and change symbols and mental images into logical thought and understand cause and effect

relationships. They also start to take the views of others into account when decision making and will actively seek others views and modify their own views accordingly (Jardine, 2006).

Consequently, as children aged 5 and 6 years old do not possess the cause and effect cognitive abilities required to understand the relationships between hazard labels,

hazardous chemicals and the potential harm these chemicals can inflict, it was decided not to include these ages in this study. Also since the active learning method will be employed, which requires significant interaction and discussion between the school children, seeking others views and opinions and working together, and these cognitive abilities are lacking in 5 and 6 year old children, this added to the decision that these ages not be included.

Page 110 of 308 3.8.4 Delimitations

Particular delimitations on the study were imposed by the investigator. Most importantly, the investigation did not focus on any other type of intervention but instead focused specifically on teaching the GHS. The study was also limited to certain learning styles as suggested by experts who participated in a survey: visual, auditory, read/write,

kinaesthetic and tactile. The study was also limited to primary school children – effectively

from age 7 to 11 years of age.

3.8.5 Conclusion

Extraneous variables other than participation in the chemical safety programme had to be minimised or controlled in order to verify with confidence any cause and effect relationship (Black, 2004). The interval between the pre-test and post-test needed to be as short as possible so as to minimise the likelihood of maturation affecting the gains between the two tests. A testing effect is possible if the same test is used for pre-testing and post-testing, however using the same test safeguards against instrumentation effects (Black, 2004). Administering the pre-test and post-test immediately before and immediately after the programme was designed to eliminate any maturation effects.