Background

2.2.1.1Chinese people in the UK

The Chinese community has become one of the biggest ethnic groups in the UK today (Parker 1999; Chan, Cole et al. 2007), with most overseas Chinese having originated from two provinces, Fujian and Guangdong, which use Min dialects and Cantonese (Ross 2006). As Hong Kong was a British colony, Britain took priority in Hong Kong people’s choices, Cheng (1996) indicates that “among the 156,938 Chinese people in 1991, 34 per cent came from Hong Kong, 13 per cent came from Singapore and Malaysia, and 28 per cent were born in the UK” (Chan, Cole et al. 2007, p.512). In 2006, approximately 400,000 Chinese people lived in Britain (Li and Zhu 2011). Recently, the increased number of mainlanders became the new blood of the ongoing growth of the British Chinese community (Li and Zhu 2011).

The Chinese complementary and community schools are voluntary organizations, which run by and for the Chinese communities. Their principal objective is “to transmit the Chinese language and culture to the British-born generations” (Li and Zhu 2011, P.14). In the interests of tackling the problem of maintaining Chinese language and culture among the new generation born in the UK, the early immigrants started running complementary schools and community schools, teaching both Mandarin and Cantonese (Wu 2006). According to Song (2005), since 2000 Chinese was more likely to be taught in complementary schools and community schools than

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in mainstream schools. Complementary and community schools made great contribution in introducing and supporting developments with Mandarin especially when Mandarin Chinese have not been introduced to in mainstream schools. Nowadays, the most of statistical data that they have had an impact on the teaching of Mandarin Chinese provided by government or education organizations such as CILT are based on mainstream schools rather than in complementary and community schools. Although complimentary schools did Cantonese up to 2006 there has been increasing evidence of Mandarin in complimentary schools, some of them continued catering Cantonese at the same time.

Foreign language assistant (FLA) is group who has begun to predominate in current teaching Mandarin Chinese as a foreign language in Britain (CILT 2007). Chinese FLAs are qualified teachers in China. They are selected by Hanban in China. During their teaching, Chinese FLAs brought Chinese cultural adjustment over from China. Firstly, as native Chinese speakers, Chinese FLAs brought a vivid Chinese language alive for pupils. It helps pupils raising their awareness of the Chinese language. Secondly, FLAs brought with them a wealth of resources and ideas, which include both traditional Chinese festivals and costume and updated information of today’s China for example pop songs, fast food and fashions. Those resources and ideas would help students with their understanding of the language and culture in difference and creative ways, for example teach calligraphy in art classes, and food technology.

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In addition, pupils would study through the use of current videos, DVDs, TV and radio programmes. Those issues would raise pupils’ interests in learning Chinese language and improve pupils’ confidence in speaking and understanding Chinese language and its culture.

2.2.1.2 The British Council, Hanban and Confucius Institutes

The British Council, Hanban and Confucius Institutes are three key organizations that have supported the introduction of Mandarin Chinese teaching and learning in the UK. Thus, I will review them as part of the background to my study. Before 2001, the British Council worked together with the government department of education in England, Wales and Scotland. They had an agreement to access Chinese native speakers, build up link schools between Britain and China, and introduce collaborative activities (Wang 2009). Since 2001, the HSBC Education Trust has joined this programme and has offered support to the British Council (Wang 2009). Hanban takes responsibility for recruiting teachers and volunteers in China to teach Mandarin abroad (Hanban 2011). Table 2.1 indicates the number of Chinese language assistants in UK schools and shows that the number is growing gradually year upon year.

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Table2.1 Number of Chinese language assistants in UK schools,

2001–2008

Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

NO. of CLA 13 18 22 29 35 65 86 95

Source: (Wang 2009)

Hanban, the National Office for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (NOCFL) is also known as the Office of Chinese Language Council International. “Hanban” is an acronym created from “Hanyu-Chinese language”. It was established in July 1987 and works as the main organization for the promotion and spread of Chinese Language, as its website states:

Hanban is committed to making the Chinese language and culture

teaching resources and services available to the world, to meeting the

demands of overseas Chinese learners to the utmost, to contributing to the

formation of a world of cultural diversity and harmony (Hanban 2008).

Hanban involves 12 Central Government ministries (Chinese Ministry of Education2005, p.118; Gil 2008). It is linked with the Ministry of Education of China and is a nonprofit organization (HanBan 2009). “Besides promoting cultural exchanges and tours, support networks for teachers and students of Chinese language, it provides a wide range of language teaching and learning support” (Lo Bianco 2007,

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p.12). It develops and administers an examination system for foreign learners – Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (汉 语 水 平 考 试) (HSK)， known as the Chinese Proficiency Examination (Kane 2006). Meanwhile, in 2002, the Chinese Language Bridge (汉语 桥) started staging a Chinese language proficiency competition for learners in universities around the world (Zhao and Huang 2010). The Chinese teaching as a foreign language Volunteers project was initiated by Hanban. It forms “important parts of the Chinese teaching as a foreign language infrastructure and schemes in policy and practice” (Zhao and Huang 2010, p.132).

To meet the growing demand for learning the Chinese language by people in different countries and to learn the language without leaving their home countries, the Chinese government established Chinese language agencies overseas, naming them “Confucius Institutes”, after the most well-known ancient Chinese thinker and educator, Confucius. Between 2004 and 2006, there was on average one new Confucius Institute established every four days in the world. According to Zhao (2009) “the initial target of 100 Confucius Institutes by 2010 was quickly increased to over 330 by the end of 2009” (cited in Zhao and Huang 2010, p.129). Up until 2008, 249 Confucius Institutes and 56 Confucius Classrooms found a home in 78 countries and regions (Liu 2008). Featuring flexible forms of operations and embracing universities, secondary schools and primary schools, they had 130,000 registered learners attending 6000 sessions of Chinese language courses and 1.4 million people participated in the different cultural and learning exchanges programs (Liu 2008). By

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the end of May 2009, 339 Confucius Institutes had been established and countries had at least one Confucius Institute (Zhao 2009). The numbers continue to increase and it seems likely that in doing studies of this type, Hanban teachers and Confucius classes may be involved.