The use of target language

The issue of target language use has been described and explored extensively in the last decades (Franklin 1990; Dickson 1992; Dickson 1996; Macaro 1997; Buckby 1999; Meiring and Norman 2002; Pachler, Barnes et al. 2009). Discussions regarding the status of target language can be traced back to the Direct Method (Meiring and Norman 2002). In the various versions of the National Curriculum in England, it was expected to be used as the normal means of communication (DES/WO 1990; Ofsted 2004) in foreign language classes; indeed as was stated in sub section 10.7 in the National Curriculum, “the natural use of the target language for virtually all communication is a sure sign of a good modern language course”(DES/WO 1990, p.58). However, Meiring and Norman (2002) have pointed out that the idea of “normal means of communication in the classroom” is limited. They consider that the practical communication would not be limited by a “clear defined environment” such as in class, it should widely work under any situation. The use of target language relates to two concepts: on the one hand, it concerns the target language use by teachers, and has been seen as a basic routine during the instruction procedures; on the

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other hand, it relates to target language use by pupils, such as when they adopt it with teachers and peers (Pachler, Barnes et al. 2009).

Regarding the teacher’s use of target language, Franklin (1990) highlighted two considerations: “namely the behavior of pupils in the classroom” which is especially useful at the very beginning of using target language and she also admitted that it would be affected by the class procedure or teaching goals. The other consideration she mentions are “teachers’ own confidence in the use of the target language” (cited in Meiring and Norman 2002, p.33). Teachers’ confidence in using target language is founded upon teachers’ linguistic knowledge, such as vocabulary and phrase skills. It depends on teachers’ classroom and teaching materials’ management abilities. It also concerns continuing professional development and maintenance and progression of language skills (Meiring and Norman 2002). Moreover, teachers should keep in practice and use the target language everyday to decrease the limitation in basic transactions with pupils. Krashen and Terrell (1988), meanwhile, have stressed the notion of “comprehensible input” and “natural approach”. They have indicated that it is dangerous if the teacher treats the process of learning as a formal activity and a fixed subject of study and analysis rather than setting up a relaxed friendly relationship with learners. However, Macaro (2000) argues from a different angle that “it would be unwise to recommend the total exclusion of the L1 from the foreign language classroom” (p.177). He states that teachers use L1 in building their personal relationship with pupils, managing pupils’ behavior and lesson procedures, teaching

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grammar and giving out important information such as homework or text instructions (Macaro 1997). The use of the target language will be adopted in classroom interaction and he emphasizes promoting the target language in teacher-pupil and pupil-pupil interaction.

In terms of reactions to teacher use of target language, learners’ attitudes and opinions about target language use is mixed (Macaro 1997; Stables and Wikeley 1999; Macaro 2000). Macaro’s (1997) study shows that pupils in the same class, being taught by the same teacher reacted very differently to teachers’ use of the target language, as some learners were comfortable with it and had very strong reaction to teachers whereas others did not. He indicated that the differences in pupils’ reactions did not result from different teaching styles, but variations between learners. He also argued that even for pupils who had strong reactions, it still does not mean that “they have understood or are satisfied with it (use of the target language)” (Macaro 2000, p.181). Stables and Wikeley (1999) have pointed out that a “lack of comprehension and dissatisfaction may well be among the factors which lead to demotivation”(cited in Macaro 2000, p.181). Their study found that these pupils had negative attitudes towards foreign language learning occurring in the target language predominates in the language classrooms, and thus, that there is a need to change the situation relating to the use of the target language. Mitchell’s (1994) notion of effective teaching is that it is as an active process which needs to increase learners’ awareness of taking responsibility for their own learning progress. Meiring and Norman (2002), meanwhile, suggest that

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learners use textbooks and other learning materials as the sample of pre- communicative tasks and adopt basic repetition drills to practice knowledge in target language. They mention that suitable body language will help learners to remember new language items and present themselves by using the target language. They further encourage pupils to employ what they have learnt for general communicative needs in class and display knowledge, cultural and other information relating to the target language. This view is echoed by James et al (1999), who states that “a stimulating

classroom environment and a real audience can have a marked impact on the motivation to speak” (p.2).

Macaro (2000) has indicated some further factors which affect interaction in the foreign language classroom. The first of these is the length of the lesson. He defines a long lesson as more than 50 minutes and a short lesson as approximately 35 minutes. Although he emphasizes that his findings are limited by the sample, this still shows that teachers in long lessons engaged in more teacher-centered activities than is the case in short lessons. In other words, pupils in the long lessons had less chance to use the target language to engage in interaction with teachers and peers. However, later, he reinforces the fact that when teachers add more pair work or group work in long length classes, surprisingly, the used of target language increases by both teachers and pupils. Secondly, he points out where the teacher uses the target language, the pupils are also likely to do so. With the switch to their first language in discourse, pupils will feel free to use first language to express themselves. In this study too, it is necessary

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to observe teacher- pupil interaction in classes and their use of target language, as this will help the researcher to analyze the current situation of teaching and learning Mandarin Chinese as a second language in practice.