The behaviourist theory of learning

Behaviourists try to explain human behaviour on the basis of stimulus-response associations, without any consideration of the internal mental processes. To them the internal mental processes are not very important because they cannot be objectively studied. There is also a strong relationship between events in the external world and observable behaviour. In other words, objects or situations in the surrounding area (stimuli) control behaviour by means of the learning that has occurred (Eryaman & Genc, 2010; Ullrich, 2008:27; Westen, 2002:13-14).

The behaviourists also assert that learning can only be studied by observing situations in the surroundings, and by measuring the organisms’ responses to the situations (Halpern & Donaghey, 2002: 1460; Ponticell, 2006:605). Furthermore, according to the behaviourists, learning can be enhanced by means of reinforcing positive responses and ignoring or punishing unwanted ones. On the basis of this perspective, Skinner developed programmed instruction that is also useful for computer-aided instruction. He proposed learning principles that include shaping, immediate feedback and continuous positive reinforcement. Thus, these three principles guide students through the learning material in steps, providing instant correction, and regularly reinforcing the positive outcomes (Ullrich, 2008:37). Because a student is seen as a passive receiver of knowledge, the lessons have to be broken down into small parts and presented to the student with the provision of reinforcement (Eryaman & Genc, 2010:535; Russ-Eft, 2011:121). This approach strongly influenced teaching in Ethiopia for many years.

According to Eryaman and Genc (2010:535), the behaviourist curriculum is developed based on direct learning objectives and clearly specified learning attainments. The behaviourists contend that anything that cannot be measured

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cannot be reliable, and thus should not form part of a curriculum. Thus, the behaviourist curriculum encourages organised learning with pre-set objectives and reinforcements when the goals are achieved.

The behaviourists are criticised for not considering the environment in which learning takes place, nor the prior experiences of the students. Eryaman and Genc (2010:535) state that post-modern critical pedagogues do not agree with how the behaviourists develop the curricula that are characterised by “behavioural lesson plans, context-free objectives, instrumental and external evaluation, and dualistic curriculum frameworks”. Such curricula separate the teachers from the students, and meaning and the context in which meaning is formed, subjective students and objective knowledge, as well as learning and the situation in which learning takes place. Critical theorists do not believe curricula are value-neutral. Thus, such behaviourist curricula are not suitable for multi-cultural societies.

However, the behaviourist theory has ruled formal teaching for a long time, and is still a major stance in many schools in respect of the management of students and how they are taught (Jenkins, 2006). The behaviourists played a big role in the advancement of teaching and learning in general and in classroom instruction in particular. Regarding its positive contributions to the field of education, Ponticell (2006:605) states that teachers have been taught the importance of reinforcement by means of material matters, tokens of respect and esteem, the chance to participate in enjoyable activities, pleasant feelings, or positive feedback on high- quality learning performance. The teachers also understand that learning is more likely to occur in contexts that provide positive outcomes for learning.

This approach is consequently relevant to this study where learning styles and attitudes towards learning are investigated.

Two prominent behaviourist theories are discussed next. These are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

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2.3.1.1 Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning was developed by the Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (in Halpern & Donaghey, 2002:1459). He trained a dog to respond to the ringing of a bell in respect of being given food. After the repetition for some time, the dog salivated when the bell rang. On the basis of the experiment, Pavlov came up with a general learning principle for human and animal learning. In the classical conditioning model, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) has the natural capacity to produce an unconditioned response (UCR). If a neutral stimulus (one that does not produce the UCR), is paired with the presentation of the UCS over a successive repetition, it will produce a conditioned response (CR), even in the absence of UCS (Halpern & Donaghey, 2002:1459).

2.3.1.2 Instrumental or operant conditioning

Operant conditioning happens when a certain consequence follows a given behaviour. When a certain response is frequently followed by a desirable consequence, there is a chance that the response will be repeated. However, when the response is followed by an unpleasant or neutral consequence, there is a chance that the behaviour will decrease. Thus, a subject ‘operates’ or acts in the environment that is likely to produce a desired consequence (Blackbourn, & Chessin, 2006:190).

Observation has indicated that this learning principle is often relevant in Ethiopian schools within the context of classroom discipline.

On the basis of independent experiments, Thorndike and Skinner developed many learning principles (Blackbourn, & Chessin, 2006:190). These learning principles include, for example, extinction, stimulus-generalisation, stimulus-discrimination, reinforcement, and others.

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Despite their many similarities, significant differences exist between operant and classical conditioning. Firstly, the behaviour in operant conditioning is voluntary (emitted), whereas the behaviour in classical condition is reflexive (elicited). Secondly, in respect of operant conditioning the response or behaviour comes first, and thereafter the conditioning stimulus occurs. In classical conditioning, the conditioning stimulus is presented first in order to get the response (Halpern & Donaghey, 2002:1459).