Coding qualitative data

Coding is the procedure where raw data are organised into conceptual classes. Each of the codes is considered as a bin into which parts of data are deposited (Gratton & Jones, 2010). Codes, according to Miles and Huberman (1994), are labels used to assign pieces of meaning to the inferential or descriptive data generation during a study. The codes are usually attached to masses of varying-size words; whole paragraphs, sentences, or phrases (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The coding process is the initial activity in analysing qualitative data and is the basis for other processes that come later. It is very critical when exploring regularities in the data, (Van Gog et al., 2008).

There are two main forms of codes in the Miles and Huberman method, namely; inferential or pattern codes and descriptive codes. Initial codes may be descriptive, without the need for much interpretation beyond the portion of data itself. They are especially valuable in allowing the researcher to gain a feel of the data, and in initiating the analysis. The inferential code tends to focus on pattern codes; it groups information into smaller and more meaningful units (Franklin & Wang, 2003). The researchers must read data carefully, identifying all statements regarding the research question, and assign each portion of data a category or code. The codes need to be valid; they should reflect what is being studied in a more accurate manner (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Codes should be mutually exclusive, in that they should be distinct, without any overlaps. They should also be comprehensive, that is to say; all related information ought to fit into a code (Jones, 2014). The codes have been grouped into the following themes: general dimensions themes,

higher order themes, and raw data themes (Edwards & Skinner, 2010).

In answering the first research question on how students at Harare High School use smartphones for academic purposes, I developed some four basic codes from the data generated from the in- depth interviews and questionnaires. The codes are research, downloading textbooks and papers, storage of notes and past exam papers as soft copies, and sharing notes and assignments through social media platforms. Using the codes developed above, I searched for statements that fit each of the categories (Gratton & Jones, 2004). I then grouped similar units into first-order themes, separating them from units with contrasting meanings (Gratton & Jones, 2010). I ensured that the data units (each relevant statement, sentences, and more) were clustered into common themes (codes) and subsequent sub- themes. The data were organised under its appropriate themes. This process is called open coding.

Some researchers advise that interpretation of data should not only focus on finding the cases which support the researcher’s ideas or descriptions, but also to identify and explain circumstances that are contradictory. Combining the analysis with the findings from diverse data sources is used as a way of demonstrating trustworthiness in the analysis (Toavs, 2017), and this research has used this approach to ensure trustworthiness. To safeguard reliability, there should be an audit trail on all research procedures by which readers and other researchers can judge the process through which the research has been conducted, together with the critical choices that have informed the process of that research (Holloway & Galvin, 2010). I also have critically reflected on my role within the entire process of generating data. I checked for all data, whether confirmatory or contradictory, to ensure that I avoided being unfairly selective in choosing the data. In order to minimise bias, I had to avoid the tendency of selecting and reporting facts that only supported my personal ideas about the main findings of the study.

Below is an example of the coding as described above.

On the theme ‘Academic use of smartphones’, four sub-themes were developed: research, downloading academic materials, storage of academic materials as soft copies, and sharing notes and assignments through social media platforms. Below are the examples of the coding of the statements given by the students;

Using smartphones for research

I use a smartphone for research purposes, especially in my three A-level subjects: Business studies, Accounts and Geography. In most cases, I work ahead of other students with the syllabi. The most common site that I visit on the Internet is

Google. I am now a good researcher, and because I do research, my academic performance has improved.

Using smartphones to download academic materials

Tracy is quoted:

I use my phone for downloading academic papers and books. Some of my books are quite expensive so, I cannot afford to buy the textbooks, but I can buy data bundles and download e-books and papers for my studies ... I managed to get some applications to download these e-books so I have most of my textbooks as soft copies on my phone.

Efforts were made to ensure the trustworthiness of the data in this study. I provided the interviewed students with an outline of the data analysis and requested them to judge the analysis process and the interpretation. I also requested them for critical comments on the adequacy of the findings (Miles & Huberman, 1994).