Chapter 7 Longitudinal Results
7.2 Comparison of Longitudinal Change in Intervention Males at Baseline,
The following section summarises results for intervention group responses at baseline, post-intervention, and at the 16-month follow-up using repeated measures ANOVA.
The results are outlined in relation to research question one and two.
The intervention group consisted of 160 adolescent males at baseline, 155 males at post-intervention and 146 males at follow-up. Attrition during the study meant that the final intervention group sample consisted of 146 (91.25%) participants.
7.2.1 Dieting behaviours and weight perceptions
A description of intervention group changes in dieting behaviours, weight perception and desired weight from baseline to follow-up are given in Table 35.
Table 35
Comparison of Intervention Participants’ Dieting Behaviours, Perceived Weight and Desired Weight at Baseline, Post-intervention and at Follow-up
Measure
Intervention Males
Baseline
Post-intervention
Follow-up
M SD M SD M SD Fa p
Diet
Lose weight 0.26 0.44 0.24 0.43 0.22 0.42 0.53 .59 Gain weight 0.08 0.27 0.09 0.28 0.11 0.31 0.65 .52 Perceived
weight 2.07 0.48 2.06 0.45 2.09 0.46 0.42 .65 Desired weight 3.38 0.90 3.31 0.87 3.21 0.90 3.33 .04*
aF value computed using repeated measures ANOVA (two tailed).
*p<.05
The results show that intervention males’ perceived weight did not change across all three time periods. Results also show that intervention males desired weight decreased from baseline to follow-up (p=.04).
Table 36 compares changes in intervention participants’ Physical Appearance Scores (0–10), Stunkard Body Figure Perception Scale Scores (rating of 1–9, 1=emaciated, 9=obese) and BMI at baseline, post-intervention and follow-up using repeated measures ANOVA.
Table 36
Comparison of Intervention Participants’ Physical Appearance Scores, Stunkard Body Figure Perception Scale Scores and BMI at Baseline, Post-intervention and Follow-up
Measure
aF value computed using repeated measures ANOVA (two tailed).
bε degrees of freedom were corrected using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity
*p<.05
***p<.001
7.2.2 Physical Appearance Scores
A general observable increase in Physical Appearance Scores was found among the intervention group and this was statistically significant for the opposite sex score with improvement between the three time points.
7.2.3 Stunkard Body Figure Scale Scores
All Stunkard scores increased significantly during the intervention period with post hoc tests showing an increase in perceived self-score between baseline and follow-up (p<.001), desired self from baseline to follow-up (p<.001), desired male from baseline to follow-up (p<.001), and preferred female figure from baseline to follow-up (p<.001). Intervention male participants’ perception of preferred female and male figures increased as time progressed, with greater increases seen in male figure means.
7.2.4 BMI
BMI increased significantly at all time points as an indicator of the normal adolescent growth spurt.
7.2.5 Worries and stresses
A comparison of change in intervention adolescents’ worries and stresses about school and fitting in at school is given in Table 37.
Table 37
Comparison of Intervention Participants’ Worries and Stresses Concerning School and Fitting in at School at Baseline, Post-intervention and Follow-up
Worries/Stresses
Intervention Males
Baseline
Post-intervention Follow-up
M SD M SD M SD Fa p εb
School year 2.40 0.58 2.34 0.64 2.33 0.58 0.87 .42 .96 Trying to find new
friends 2.46 0.65 2.47 0.61 2.41 0.61 0.58 .56 - Fitting in at school 2.45 0.64 2.39 0.66 2.36 0.62 1.15 .32 - Not being smart
enough 2.49 0.67 2.47 0.65 2.60 0.62 3.19 .04* - Doing well at
schoolwork 2.34 0.63 2.24 0.67 2.30 0.71 0.97 .38 .96
aF value computed using repeated measures ANOVA (two tailed).
bε degrees of freedom were corrected using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity
*p<.05
Intervention group males’ worries and stresses about school and fitting in at school tended to stay stable over time, but there was a slight decrease about being worried about being smart enough between post-intervention and follow-up.
The main effects of intervention participants’ worries and stresses about relationships are reported in Table 38.
Table 38
Comparison of Intervention Participants’ Worries and Stresses Concerning Relationships at Baseline, Post-intervention and Follow-up
Worries/Stresses
Intervention Males Baseline Post
intervention Follow-up
M SD M SD M SD Fa p εb
Being popular
and well liked 2.46 0.65 2.45 0.65 2.52 0.57 0.92 .40 - Getting along
with:
Friends 2.48 0.67 2.50 0.67 2.50 0.66 0.06 .94 - Girlfriend 2.36 0.73 2.36 0.69 2.46 0.71 1.36 .26 - Mum 2.55 0.72 2.56 0.67 2.55 0.72 0.02 .98 .97 Dad 2.54 0.72 2.58 0.66 2.54 0.72 0.25 .78 - Sibling/s 2.54 0.69 2.61 0.59 2.69 0.58 3.03 .06 .91 Others at
home/in family 2.55 0.65 2.55 0.67 2.65 0.64 1.55 .21 - Teachers 2.50 0.63 2.42 0.64 2.64 0.59 6.07 .00** - Being left out 2.22 0.72 2.35 0.68 2.44 0.66 5.82 .00** -
aF value computed using repeated measures ANOVA (two tailed).
bε degrees of freedom were corrected using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity
**p<.01
Reported worries and stresses tended to be stable across the three study periods, but intervention participants’ worries about getting along with teachers increased from baseline to post-intervention, but then decreased from post-intervention to follow-up.
Worrying about being left out decreased from baseline to follow-up.
Change in intervention participants’ worries and stresses concerning bullying, social interactions and being offered drugs/cigarettes or alcohol are given in Table 39.
Table 39
Comparison of Intervention Participants’ Worries and Stresses Concerning Bullying, Social Interactions and Being Offered Drugs, Cigarettes or Alcohol at Baseline, Post-intervention and Follow-up
Worries/Stresses
Intervention Males Baseline
Post-intervention Follow-up
M SD M SD M SD Fa p εb
Spiritual beliefs 2.59 0.63 2.69 0.52 2.75 0.49 3.84 .03* .95 Being offered
drugs/cigarettes or alcohol
1.91 0.86 2.08 0.82 2.36 0.78 15.33 .00***
Being teased 2.23 0.79 2.36 0.72 2.39 0.69 3.86 .02* .92 Being called
names 2.27 0.80 2.43 0.71 2.44 0.67 4.29 .02* .92 Being bullied
physically 2.13 0.82 2.41 0.74 2.46 0.69 13.55 .00***
Cyberbullying 2.55 0.69 2.62 0.63 2.72 0.55 3.75 .03* .96 Being too
competitive 2.62 0.59 2.66 0.53 2.66 0.54 0.35 .71 .94
aF value computed using repeated measures ANOVA (two tailed).
bε degrees of freedom were corrected using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity
*p<.05
***p<.001
Intervention group participants consistently decreased their worries about all issues, as shown in Table 39. Post hoc tests showed that intervention worries about being bullied physically, teased at school, being called names at school and being cyberbullied, decreased from baseline line to post-intervention, which was maintained at follow-up.
The change in intervention participants’ worries and stresses about physical appearance and body image is given in Table 40.
Table 40
Comparison of Intervention Participants’ Worries and Stresses about Physical
Activity, Time Management, Physical Appearance and Body Image at Baseline, Post-intervention and Follow-up
Worries/Stresses
Intervention Males
Baseline
Post-intervention Follow-up
M SD M SD M SD Fa p εb
Doing well at
physical activities 2.51 0.70 2.49 0.67 2.49 0.67 0.06 .95 - Having time to do
everything 2.32 0.71 2.40 0.67 2.43 0.63 1.20 .30 .92 Having the body
size and shape that I want
2.38 0.67 2.42 0.70 2.45 0.68 0.53 .59 -
Changes to my body during puberty
2.62 0.57 2.61 0.59 2.68 0.53 0.78 .46 -
Skin, pimples,
acne 2.35 0.69 2.51 0.65 2.42 0.62 2.88 .06 -
aF value computed using repeated measures ANOVA (two tailed).
bε degrees of freedom were corrected using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity
These results indicate that intervention males remained fairly consistent in their level of worries and stresses concerning body size, appearance, shape, doing well as sports or having enough time for everything from baseline to follow-up.
7.3 Comparison of Longitudinal Change for Male Intervention and Control