Comparison of Longitudinal Change for Male Intervention and Control

This section will compare intervention and control participants’ Physical Appearance Scores, body image and worries, using repeated measures ANOVA with time of measurement (baseline versus post-intervention versus 16-month follow-up) as a within-subjects factor and group (intervention, control) as independent variables. The results are outlined in relation to research question one and two.

7.3.1 Repeated analysis over three time periods

A repeated measures ANOVA was conducted over three time periods; baseline, post-intervention and follow-up for dieting behaviours, perceived weight and desired weight. Mauchley’s test indicated that the assumption of sphericity has not been violated for dieting behaviours, χ²(2)=1.94, p=.38. The results show that there was no significant differences between intervention and control groups over the three time periods, F(2, 328)=1.97, p=.14). However, Mauchley’s test indicated that the assumption of sphericity had been violated for perceived weight (χ²(2)=11.91, p=.003) and desired weight χ²(2)=6.75, p=.34). Therefore, degrees of freedom were corrected using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity (ε=.95, ε=.96) respectively. The results demonstrate that there was no significant effect on participants dieting behaviours, perceived weight or desired weight. These results suggest that male adolescents in the intervention group did not improve significantly compared to those in the control group in relation to dieting and weight perception.

7.3.1.1 Physical Appearance Scores

Table 41 examines participants Physical Appearance Scores for male adolescents in intervention and control groups.

Table 41

Comparison of Intervention and Control Participants’ Physical Appearance Scores at Baseline, Post-intervention and Follow-up

Effect SS MS df F p ε

Self-score 5.66 2.83 2 2.26 .11 -

Other people score 8.44 4.22 2 2.64 .73 -

Opposite sex score 3.56 1.90 1.87 1.11 .33 .94

Mother score 18.85 9.65 1.74 4.04 .02* .87

Fathers score 5.55 11.10 2 3.60 .03* -

*p<.05

Control and intervention participants differed significantly between groups for mother and father Physical Appearance Scores. Control participants’ mean mother self-score decreased from baseline to post-intervention with a slight increase at the 16-month follow-up. Intervention participants scores increased in mothers self-score from baseline to follow-up. Intervention participants’ fathers self-score from baseline to post-intervention increased compared to the control group over the same time frames.

Post hoc tests indicated there was no intervention effect on individuals mother and father Physical Appearance self-score for control group or interventions at baseline to the 16-month follow-up.

7.3.1.2 Stunkard Body Figure Scale Scores

Table 42 compares the intervention effect on body image desire, preferred male figure and preferred female figure over time.

Table 42

Comparison of Intervention and Control Participants’ Stunkard Body Figure Perception Scale Scores at Baseline, Post-intervention and Follow-up

Effect SS MS df F p ε

Stunkard Scale

(1–9)

Self 1.40 0.70 2 1.65 .26 -

Desired figure 1.17 0.61 1.92 1.32 .27 .96 Preferred male figure 0.81 0.43 1.90 0.97 .38 .95 Preferred female figure 0.22 0.11 2 0.25 .78 -

*p<.05

Table 42 shows no differences between intervention and control group Stunkard Body Figure Scale Scores for self-rated figure, desired figure, preferred female figure or preferred male figure over the three time frames.

7.3.1.3 Worries and stresses

The intervention did not yield significant effects on school and fitting in for intervention males compared to their respective control counterparts (see Table 43).

Table 43

Comparison of Control and Intervention Participants’ Worries and Stresses Concerning School and Fitting in at School at Baseline, Post-intervention and Follow-up

Measure SS MS df F p

School year 0.99 0.50 2 1.95 .14

Trying to find new friends 0.89 0.05 2 0.19 .83

Fitting in at school 0.15 0.08 2 0.28 .75

Not being smart enough 0.58 0.29 2 1.22 .30

Doing well at schoolwork 0.22 0.11 2 0.33 .71

Table 44 shows that there were no significant differences between intervention and control groups over the three time periods for worries about relationships.

Table 44

Comparison of Control and Intervention Participants’ Worries and Stresses Concerning Relationships at Baseline, Post-intervention and Follow-up

Measure SS MS df F p ε

Being popular 0.16 0.08 2 0.28 .76 - Getting along with:

Friends 0.17 0.09 2 0.30 .74 -

Girlfriend 0.09 0.05 2 0.12 .89 -

Mum 0.38 0.19 2 0.56 .57 -

Dad 0.36 0.18 2 0.54 .58 -

Sibling/s 0.29 0.16 1.86 0.54 .57 .93 Others at home 0.76 0.38 2 1.25 .29 - New teachers 0.99 0.50 2 1.83 .16 - Being left out 0.60 0.30 2 0.94 .39 -

No significant differences were found for any participants’ worries or stresses concerning bullying, social interaction and drugs at any time frame (see Table 45).

Table 45

Comparison of Control and Intervention Participants’ Worries and Stresses Concerning Bullying, Social Interactions and being Offered Drugs, Cigarettes or Alcohol at Baseline, Post-intervention and Follow-up

Measure SS MS df F p ε

Spiritual beliefs 0.08 0.04 1.90 0.17 .84 .95 Being offered

drugs/cigarettes or alcohol 1.70 0.85 2 1.86 .16 - Being teased at school 0.04 0.02 1.88 0.06 .93 .94 Being called names 0.03 0.02 1.85 0.04 .95 .93 Being bullied physically 0.08 0.04 2 0.12 .89 - Cyber bullying 0.18 0.10 1.90 0.32 .71 .95 Being too competitive 0.08 0.04 1.89 0.18 .83 .95

Intervention and control participants’ worries and stresses about physical appearance and body image over time are shown in Table 46.

Table 46

Comparison of Control and Intervention Participants’ Worries and Stresses

Concerning Physical Activity, Time Management, Physical Appearance and Body Image at Baseline, Post-intervention and Follow-up

Measure SS MS df F p ε

Doing well at sports 0.16 0.08 2 0.26 .78 -

Time 0.38 0.20 1.89 0.54 .57 .94

Body size 0.34 0.17 2 0.60 .55 -

Changes to body 0.87 0.43 2 1.87 .16 -

Physical appearance

(skin, acne etc.) 0.03 0.02 2 0.05 .95 -

These results indicate that the intervention did not significantly affect individuals’

worries and stresses about body image and physical appearance when compared to the control group at each phase.

Results indicate that control group participants displayed minimal change in stress and worries between baseline, post-intervention and follow-up time frames; while, intervention group participants’ worries and stresses decreased. Repeated measures ANOVA test, however, yielded no effects for baseline to follow-up in worries and stresses across groups in all categories.

Section 7.3 aims to present results in relation to the significance of the comparisons presented in section 7.1 and section 7.2 using repeated analysis over three time periods. Chapter 7 reports longitudinal data in mental health and wellbeing of intervention and control groups. In this chapter the results of the mental health and wellbeing promotion programme were examined to investigate whether a school-based intervention, designed in liaison with school administration, would have a positive effect for adolescent males. Results were computed separately for students in the control and intervention groups and the significance of the difference between the two groups was compared. The following chapter presents findings in regard to the student evaluation, support and referral of high-risk students and acceptability of the intervention by key stakeholders. A summary of the results are also reported.