Conception of contextual knowledge

Context is multifaceted and multidimensional. As a result, the concept of what constitutes context can be viewed differently as it is dependent on the theoretical lens through which it is viewed. Conventionally, context has been considered as a physical location or setting which Lave (1993) posits as neither having any impact on any activities that happen within it nor being influenced by any interactions that occur within it. However, a broader perspective is employed in order to show a more comprehensive view of the concept of context.

At school level, CK can be viewed as knowledge of its infrastructure, for example laboratories and equipment; knowledge of different stakeholders, for instance the learners, teachers, parents and educational administrators; and the knowledge of sociocultural environment such as educational policies and cultural norms (Ford, 1992). When viewed at classroom level, CK includes how teachers conceive culture, what they know and understand about cultures different from theirs and how they view classrooms as social and cultural contexts (Cochran-Smith, 1997). In the same vein, Harding, London and Safer (2001) view CK as recognition by teachers that learners have unique attributes and different family settings which include culture, gender, race, sexual orientation and religion that may impact on their way of life. By drawing from Cochran-Smith and Harding, London and Safer’s definitions, the current study conceptualises CK as knowledge of learners’ socio- cultural practices, experiences and beliefs that develop as a result of learners belonging to specific cultural groups and living within specific environmental and social settings. The study recommends that science teachers recognise diversity in their classrooms, meaning the differences in ethnicity, home language, socio-economic status and culture among learners (Lee & Luykx, 2006).

Learners’ culture is paramount in this regard. Phelan, Davidson and Cao (1990) define culture as a shared way of living which includes knowing, valuing and interaction with

others, the norms, values, beliefs, expectations and conventional actions of a particular group. A more comprehensive conceptualisation of culture is used in this study which takes culture as a way of life of groups of people who have common ‘sets of values, beliefs, experiences, communication patterns, teaching and learning styles and epistemologies’ (Solano-Flores & Nelson-Baeber, 2001, p. 555).

In summary, CK refers to knowledge of the learners’ socio-cultural practices and experiences which include norms and values, religion and beliefs, socio-economic and political relations and the learners’ indigenous knowledge systems (IKS). A point to note is that different cultures hold different norms, values and expectations which present strong influential guidelines on educational practices (Ho, Holmes & Cooper, 2004). In this regard, socio-cultural factors which include language used in the teaching and learning process, the learners’ prior experiences, their behaviour, attitudes and cultural values have been found to either facilitate or hinder learner interaction and active participation in class (Appleton & Harrison, 2001; Wellington & Osborne, 2001). As a result, science teachers face daunting challenges which firstly include recognising and understanding diverse learners’ socio-cultural backgrounds in the classroom and secondly finding the most suitable ways to manage these differences for effective engagement of learners with science concepts.

Having interrogated the meaning of CK, its conception is depicted by the concept map below which has been designed for this study based on literature on culture.

In this study only the aspect of CK which involves learners’ socio-cultural backgrounds (learners’ socio-cultural practices, beliefs and experiences) is considered as depicted in the diagram above. This disregards CK aspects such as teachers’ knowledge of the school’s physical location, setting, different stakeholders and infrastructure, for example laboratories and equipment. In order to unpack the meaning of learners’ socio-cultural practices, experiences and beliefs and how it influences teaching, the four main branches in the concept map, namely norms and values, religion and beliefs, socio-economic and political issues and indigenous knowledge, are discussed in relation to science teaching and learning in the following sections.

The aspects of CK mentioned above are in line with social constructivism as they entail science teachers who are conscious of their learners’ socio-cultural background, who affirm views from learners’ diverse backgrounds, who give every learner an opportunity to learn and understand science and who make an effort to promote learner construction of scientific

knowledge (Irvine, 1992; Banks, 1996). To show the relationship between social constructivism and CK, Barnett and Hodson (2001) postulate that ‘what counts as good teaching cannot be specified in the absence of knowledge about the elements that comprise this content’ (p. 433). In other words, good teaching should incorporate learners’ worldviews which Nisbett (2003) claims are not only a collection of values and beliefs but also a way of viewing and experiencing one’s life.

2.4.1.1 Norms and values in science teaching and learning

Cultural norms are defined as attitudes and behaviours common to members of a particular group and values refer to what is considered important by this cultural group of people (Hall, 2002). According to Fakudze (2004) at a personal level, an individual's beliefs and values can be viewed as his or her worldview. A person’s worldview provides the ‘cognitive lens’ through which the individual views and interprets phenomena (Lee & Good, 1999).

Learners are exposed to an in-school cultural socialisation process where instructional practices and learning activities do not reflect their cultural-laden modes of learning and knowing. In particular, the learners’ home cultural norms and values that guide their behaviour are discontinued once they enter the science classroom, which makes it difficult for them to adjust (Boykin et al., 2006). In fact, learners are expected to replace these indigenous cultural value-laden behaviours with classroom practices and behaviours reflective of mainstream cultural values (Howard, 1999; Loewen, 2007), which Aikenhead (1996) refers to as border crossing into the subculture of science.

Perez (2000) argues that a caring teacher would not show bias against the learners' distinct cultural norms and values. This is confirmed in a study of classroom management strategies (Brown, 2004), where a caring attitude by teachers was found to facilitate interaction among ethnically and culturally diverse learners. The teachers in question employed culturally responsive teaching which can be described as an environment where teachers consciously provide appropriate learning experiences by incorporating diverse learners’ behavioural preferences in the classroom (Brown, 2004). As a result, learners felt respected and in turn reciprocated by respecting and owning the learning process.

Some researchers have also shown that incorporation of aspects of ethnically and culturally diverse learners’ cultural norms and values into lessons and class activities can facilitate learner performance (Serpell, Boykin, Madhere & Nasim, 2006). In addition, utilisation of learners’ cultural values in the teaching process was also found to improve learners’ engagement with tasks given in the classroom (Gay, 2000; Nieto, 2001; Rogoff, 2003).

The role of norms and values can be noted in the communication systems in science classes. For instance, because communication is multidimensional, that is verbal, nonverbal and written, it can vary between individuals and cultures as well. Thus cultural differences can lead to misinterpretations of the communicated messages, thereby presenting significant impacts on interactions within the science classroom (Ho, Holmes & Cooper, 2004).

Science teachers are therefore urged to make an effort to understand their learners’ cultural norms and values when communicating during the science teaching and learning process. On that note, Thaman (2009) found out that due to cultural influences, learners from Pacific Islands Nations are discouraged from questioning and being competitive in class. These traits are often interpreted by some teachers as rude, indifferent and not being able to behave appropriately in class. On the other hand, many Puerto Rican learners were found to wrinkle their noses to signify non-verbally that they did not understand a certain concept (Thaman, 2009). Such variations of behaviour are due to learners’ different norms and values which can cause a breakdown in communication between the science teacher and learners. For instance, in one classroom Nieto (2000) discovered that when learners failed to respond verbally to a teacher’s question, ‘Do you understand?’ the teacher assumed wrongly that the silence meant that they had understood. Heath (1983) discovered that African-American learners failed to respond to teachers’ factual questions where the learners thought the answers were obvious, and assumed the teacher knew the answers. The teacher presumed such learners who did not respond to obvious questions were slow or less able.

Different cultural norms and values may also have an impact on the teachers’ selection and implementation of different teaching strategies for different learners. Research by Darling- Hammond, Austin, Lit and Nasir (2003) revealed that American Indian learners did not

perform well in classrooms that emphasised individualised public performances and competition. Instead Indian values of harmony, cooperation and sharing suggested that cooperative learning might be a more effective approach. This also applies to Malay learners who value togetherness and community spirit (Darling-Hammond, et al., 2003).

In a study on influence of culture on Chinese learners’ classroom behaviour, Tan (2011) found that most learners of Chinese descent brought with them their home culture of respect for the master (teacher) into the science classroom. Therefore, learners were restrained from asking questions and being engaged in critical discourse in science inquiry as it could be perceived as disrespectful to the teacher (Tan, 2011). Teachers who are not familiar with such cultural cues may misinterpret different behavioural patterns as signs of lack of interest or motivation on the part of the learners (Lee et al., 2014). On the same note, Cortazzi and Jin’s (1996) study of Chinese students in tertiary institutions revealed that Western teachers viewed questioning by students in class as active learning. However, in those classes some students viewed asking questions as a way of eliciting for confirmation from teachers after reflection, while others perceived it as time wasting or an act of foolishness in front of the teacher and classmates. In that same study, collaboration among learners was perceived by the teachers as a risk for cheating and yet according to the students it was an opportunity to practise their social skills and collective responsibility (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996).

The above illustrations present two groups of cultures (though not mutually exclusive): Western culture, which promotes individualism, and collectivist culture (African cultures included), which promotes respect for authority and group consensus (Hofstede, 1986). Collectivist culture discourages learners from questioning authority, and speaking out in groups is viewed as a sign of disrespect (Triandis, 1989). Consequently, during the communication process, conflicts may arise due to a lack of knowledge and understanding of cultural norms and cues that are important for interpreting the behaviour and conduct of the learners (Riley, 1985; Widdowson, 1987; Ninnes, 1991; Taufe’ulungaki, 2000). To avoid such misinterpretation of cultural norms and values that guide learners’ thinking and behaviour, science teachers should be knowledgeable about their learners’ socio-cultural

background (Gay, 2000). A mismatch between teachers’ and the learners’ norms and values may result in the communication process in the science classroom being flawed.

2.4.1.2 Religion and cultural beliefs in science teaching and learning

The term religion refers to a community of believers (Kant, 1956). Truth, knowledge and their relationship are central to science and religion as ways of knowing and interacting in different social institutions (Staver, 2010). Both domains of experience, religion and science, are viewed as collaborative at times, and competitive at other times (Durkheim, 1897, 1898). On that note, Upadhyay (2010) recommends social constructivism as a better framework which can ameliorate the discord between science and religion, thereby allowing their expression of reality to coexist.

In line with the above, studies carried out in the USA and Canada showed that many learners who have strong religious values and beliefs tend to hold negative attitudes towards school science (Ebbenshade, 1993; Roth & Alexander, 1997). It was also found that such learners have difficulties in learning science or even choosing science-related careers. This is explained by some researchers who hold views that learners bring to the science classroom some social-cultural beliefs that create gaps between what they are taught and what they learn (Adeniyi, 1996; Okafor, 2001 & Eniayeju, 2010). This is because some beliefs that learners hold may defy scientific knowledge and reasoning and as a result learners become confused on what to follow or believe. There is an argument that open-mindedness, which is essential in science learning, is always conflicted with religious faith from the scriptures and religious leaders (Good, 2001). In a study to determine epistemological stances towards knowledge in school science and the cultural context of India, Koul (2003) found that authoritarianism was one of the thought patterns common to both scientific and religious outlook. It was also found that such a viewpoint emphasised acceptance of dogma (such as long held scientific assumptions) and rituals (in the case of religion) without question, thereby negatively influencing learners’ perceptions of the benefits of religion and school science (Koul, 2003). Such learner perceptions pose challenges to the science teachers who strive to inculcate a culture of inquiry in science to the learners (Toulmin, Rieke & Janik, 1979) and especially critical thinking and analytical

In addition, Adeniyi (1996) contends that learners’ prior knowledge of science can also cause a negative attitude towards acquisition of scientific knowledge in class. In other words, traditional beliefs which learners hold may pose challenges to those learners in the understanding of science concepts. This is because prior knowledge learners bring to the science classroom is largely informed by their own observations, the customs and beliefs of the society as well as their religion (Akpanglo-Nartey, et al., 2012) which they value highly.

In one study, Okafor (2011) sought to identify the cultural beliefs which Nigerian junior secondary school science learners bring from their communities to the science classroom, and determine the extent of influence those beliefs had on meaningful understanding of some Biology concepts. The results of the study showed that cultural beliefs held by rural learners significantly influenced the learners’ understanding of some Biology concepts. In particular, learners strongly believed in and defended superstition which they said had been in existence before they were born. Hence they were obliged to follow those same beliefs that their grandparents believed in. Some of the beliefs they held were: an HIV positive person can be cured by being intimate with a virgin; smacking a boy with a broom stick makes him impotent and thus should be avoided; placing palm oil drops at door entrances prevents lightning from striking people as this reduces its intensity. Recommendations from the Okafor (2011) study included suggestions that the science teachers should design teaching approaches that ensure alteration of learners’ cultural beliefs to allow meaningful understanding of science subjects. Such approaches would allow effective teaching through the extensive use of illustrations and explanations that may cause learners to reconstruct their ‘irrational’ reasoning, thus allowing meaningful learning through logical reasoning. The study concluded that learners’ success in science learning is dependent on teachers helping learners to negotiate their cultural beliefs through collateral learning which Jegede (1995) proposed as a mechanism of harmonising the conflict between learners’ worldviews and science.

Aikenhead (1994) also proposes that science teachers should introduce interactive teaching strategies that relate school content with the learners’ everyday cultural practices and beliefs, as he noted that interactivity among learners and content relevancy to learners’

lives formed the two criteria that make the biggest difference to learners’ meaningful achievement in science. Incorporation of religion and cultural beliefs in science classes enables learners to develop an appreciation for their own beliefs and values and those of others different from theirs.

The above studies show that learners’ work in schools cannot be separated from the developments that occur in their lives outside the school. Thus science teachers should strive to incorporate the learners’ belief systems in their day-to-day pedagogical strategies in a bid to ensure effective science learning. Teachers should always ask themselves how they could make knowledge of their learners’ socio-cultural background a source of understanding in the science classroom. Sadly, in modern communities, the meaning of culture is complex because people’s lives may be influenced by their different religious backgrounds, multicultural communities around them and most importantly the media and other factors not mentioned here. The teachers should be wary in their teaching that the youth, that is, high school learners, are influenced by tradition and modernity (Baxen & Breidlid, 2004). They should make an extra effort to research teaching strategies that embrace all learners from different backgrounds.

2.4.1.3 Socio-economic and political issues in science teaching and learning

Historically, township schools and their learners are considered to be disadvantaged as the learners generally come from poor backgrounds. The current study focuses on cultural diversity in urban township settings where there are learners who are economically disadvantaged. This is an environment where Barton and Tobin (2001) postulate that teachers could use diversity as a resource rather than a problem in science teaching and learning.

Lemke (2001) posits that it is a falsification of the nature of science to teach concepts outside their social, economic, historical and technological contexts. Lemke questioned the usefulness of scientific literacy to learners as citizens if they are not taught about historical origins of these concepts or their economic impact. It therefore means that, in addition to exposing learners to relevant and meaningful science-learning experiences, inclusion of learners’ socio-economic background acknowledges that science is a human construction.

In as much as there is disagreement over how socio-economic status can be measured, many studies indicate that learners from low SES families do not perform well as they potentially could at school compared to learners from high SES families (Graetz, 1995). This could be attributed to the fact that teachers in the disadvantaged schools may hold low expectations of their learners. This is compounded by the fact that the learners and their parents may equally hold low expectations (Ruge, 1998).

In a study that explored factors that determine learner outcomes in disadvantaged schools, Considine and Zappala (2001) found that both social and economic factors influence educational performance of learners from disadvantaged backgrounds. However, social factors which include parents’ educational attainments were found to be more significant than economic factors in explaining learners’ educational outcomes (Considine & Zappala, 2001; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). With regard to the above, governments tend to redistribute resources and provide financial assistance to address the economic part of low SES (Graetz, 1995). This is futile at times, as economic remedies may not solve social maladies in disadvantaged communities. It is important to acknowledge that an improvement in resources does not necessarily result in better learning and better performance (Verspoor, 2006a). The current study therefore intends to explore how teachers’ knowledge of these factors can influence their teaching as they strive to engage all learners meaningfully in the learning of science.

In a related study, Frempong, Reddy and Kanjee (2011) explored equity and quality education in South Africa. Of interest to my study is their objective in exploring the relationship between school quality and socio-economic disadvantage. The researchers used a framework based on Sen (1999), who contends that success in schooling for the poor