Constructivism

In the 1990s, a change took place in the learning-teaching-assessment paradigm of teaching (Shepard, 2000). Instead of the transmission of knowledge approach, more constructivist theories of learning were adopted by shaping knowledge and developing understanding in a social context. Learning is defined as providing meaning by linking the new to the old. As a result teacher-trainers, teachers and student-teachers now focus on the development and empowerment of capabilities that will advance learning in more complex situations than the mere transmission of knowledge (Richardson, 1997).

According to constructivist philosophy, knowledge is found in a process of construction and not necessarily in teachers. The constructivist approach is based on the theory of Piaget (1970). It focuses on the structuring of knowledge as a personal process (Driver et al., 1994). According to this viewpoint constructing meaning is an active process that the individual performs within a reciprocal consideration with the physical world in order to create a coherent world picture. In other words, to avoid a situation of internal contradiction between experiences in the physical world and the individual's mental structures (lack of equilibrium in Piaget's terms), a conceptual, cognitive

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re-organisation (accommodation) takes place within the individual. Learning is therefore self-organisation that takes place in the learner's mind (Cobb, 1994). The socio-cultural approach that stems from the theory of Vygotsky (1978) focuses on the structuring of knowledge as a social process. Knowledge according to this approach is symbolic in nature, thus, beyond the reciprocal relations with a physical reality, the individual conducts reciprocal relations with symbolic realities. Learning is therefore a process of socialisation to different communities and their 'discourse' (Driver et al., 1994). The individual is exposed to the common-sense of the community in which the individual lives, represented especially by its everyday parlance, and to its scientific culture and its language (Phillips, 1995).

Despite the differences between them, both these approaches represent the progressive approach, according to which the individual is not a passive absorber of knowledge, rather the individual is required to act and experience the environment and to reflect on thinking processes in order to achieve understanding (Phillips, 1995). Based on this common denominator, several approaches have developed today that adopt a combined viewpoint, that attributes equal importance to the two dimensions – personal organisation and social conditions (Cobb, 1994).

According to Brooks & Brooks (1993) constructivist pedagogy is constructed on five principles:

1. Raising problems that are primarily relevant for pupils.

2. Structuring the learning around 'large ideas' or 'basic concepts'. 3. Requesting and attributing value to the pupils' viewpoint.

4. Adapting the learning programmes so that they relate to the pupils' assumptions.

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Turner & Dipinto (1992) emphasise that the constructivist approach to learning is best realised when the learning is a process of construction and shaping and the learning takes place especially when the learner constructs a concrete product, that can be achieved collaboratively with others. Jacobson & Spiro (1995) set out five basic constructivist principles relating to learning:

1. Ensuring multiple conceptual/knowledge representation of complex knowledge, in different ways, from a variety of viewpoints and in different contexts and activities.

2. Linking abstract and complex concepts to a variety of authentic examples (knowledge in use), in flexible inter-domain knowledge structures (Ill-structured domains/ content areas).

3. Presentation of the complexity of domains and concepts, beginning with the initial stages of learning. Simplification of complex knowledge prevents deepening and constructing knowledge.

4. Emphasising links and the netted structure of knowledge, in different, rich and flexible contexts.

5. The relationship between existing knowledge and new knowledge is considered important using renewed assessment and construction of knowledge, by continual assembly of knowledge structures, avoiding memorisation and learning in order to remember.

The role of the on-line teacher who acts according to a constructivist approach varies from a status of 'sage on the stage', the endower of knowledge who provides the teaching as a guide, partner and mediator in the learning process, to the 'guide on the side', who enables the learners to examine their knowledge and their own understanding (Hoover, 1996). The on-line teacher also constitutes a significant factor in the development of three components of learner control: autonomy, strength and support, and in creating equilibrium between the learners. This role has two aspects: the first, encouraging learners to cooperate and increasing their motivation for learning. The second: use of a methodical didactic path, chosen by the teacher to present the learning materials (Garrison & Baynton, 1987; Jonassen et al., 1995; Carnevale, 2001).

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However, Hult et al. (2005) warns that the teacher in an on-line course cannot seek refuge in constructivism leaving the dynamics to the pupils because dynamics do not autonomously come into being, unless the teacher motivates them intentionally.

In the interaction of the discussion group, open to all participants, the teacher who employs a constructivist approach serves as a mediator between the studied material and the learner through questions and an open discussion. The teacher encourages the learners to take the initiative, to cooperate and to mutually enrich each other, by creating an open and supportive atmosphere using frequent positive feedback that constitutes one of the learning parameters for the learners' satisfaction (Resnick, 1987; Bendar, Cunningham, Duffy & Perry., 1992; Coomey & Stephenson, 2001).

According to LaMonica (2001) a teacher who wishes to create a constructivist atmosphere using a computer-mediated learning strategy should consider the following aspects (LaMonica, 2001):

1. Encouragement of learners' autonomy and initiative and creation of an active sharing atmosphere in the discussion group or through electronic mail.

2. Access to varied sources and use of different types of information, also interactive links as part of the learning materials, and additionally multifarious representation of learning materials.

3. Clear drafting of high cognitive level tasks such as: characterising, analysing, predicting, reconstructing and also asking open questions. The learner should know what the tasks are in advance and the terms of the learning timetable.

4. Encouraging learners to create a dialogue with the teacher and with colleagues in the discussion group to enable social relations to form to enrich the learnt contents.

5. Providing an opportunity for learners to relate to their colleagues' questions without interference by the teacher.

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