COUNTRY STUDY I: AUSTRALIA

3.2.1 AUSTRALIA: ITS POPULATION AND LABOUR FORCE

Although the island of Australia is a continent, much of its total land area is either sparsely or almost unpopulated. The density of 2.6 square kilometres [General Facts of Country in app. III.1] can be misleading as the great majority of the population is concentrated on the eastern and southwestern coasts of the continent (Year Book Australia 2005). Australia has one of the lowest national figures in the world in terms of population distribution (McQueen 2005) but in population terms, it is the 53rd largest country in the world with a representation of 0.32 percent of global population (Hugo 2001a).

Australia’s population, formed largely from international immigrant labour, is a rich ethnic mix composition of more than 200 diverse cultures and heritages (Year Book Australia 2005). In Census 2001, those considered as being of indigenous origin comprised 2.2 per cent whilst the top most common ancestries identified after the Australians were the English (34%), Irish (10%), Italians (4%) and Germans (4%). Twenty-two per cent were born overseas with those from United Kingdom forming the largest overseas-born group, followed by New Zealand, Italy, Vietnam, People’s Republic of China, Greece, Germany, Philippines and India (ibid, DIMA 2003, 2005). It is estimated that between 2002-2003, 52 per cent of the population growth came from net overseas migration (Year Book Australia 2005). The population is projected to increase between 20.81 million and 21.38 million by 2011, going from a current median age of 34.3 to between 38.1 and 38.6 in 2011 with the proportion aged 65 and over rising from 12.1 per cent to between 13.9 and 14.2 per cent in 2011. This implies that the matured population is getting progressively larger (Hugo 2001a).

In 2003-2004, there were 10.1 million persons in the labour force [Workforce of Country in app. III.2]. Of these, 25 per cent were born overseas (Year Book Australia 2005). In 2001, New Zealand-born residents reportedly had the highest labour force participation rate of the four main birthplace groups of persons from the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Vietnam and Italy (ibid).

3.2.2 AUSTRALIA: ITS RELIGIONS

According to Thompson (2002), Christianity is by far the major religious influence in Australia. When the European settlers came during the 1800s, they brought their traditional churches with them to Australia. Even though Australian society is comprised predominantly of various Christian denominations, the freedom to practise any other religion is permitted under the Australian Constitution. In 2001, there were 68 per cent Christians, 2 per cent Buddhists, 1.5 per cent Muslims, 0.5 per cent Hindus, 0.5 per cent of ‘other’ religion and 27 per cent with ‘no religion’ (Year Book Australia 2005).

3.2.3 AUSTRALIA’S IMMIGRATION POLICY [Chronology Table see app.

III.3]

Immigration has been instrumental in both the economic development and nation building of Australia since it was colonised by the British two centuries ago (DIMA 2001a). The Department of Immigration was set up in 1945 to initiate a program aimed at 2 per cent population growth per year, half of which was to come through immigration. Needing both workers and consumers, the policy encouraged permanent, family migration and triggered a large-scale migration of workers to Australia (Castles 1992). From 1945-2001, 5.9 million have immigrated to Australia. Comprising 3.1 million males and 2.8 million females, they have contributed to the increase in the population from 7 to 19 million. Migrants have come from 150 countries but those from the British Isles remains the majority (DIMA 2001b).

Over the postwar years, there were a series of waves in which particular groups had comprised a major part of the intake. Those from Europe, particularly Greece, Italy and Spain predominated the 1950s and 1960s years. During the mid- seventies, the majority came from the three Indo-Chinese states of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia (Jupp 2001). More recently, immigrants have come from more than a hundred different birthplaces and this has contributed significantly to a substantial change in the ethnic composition of the overseas-born population (DIMA 2001b).

The increase of Asian immigrants into Australia was attributable to the policy of multiculturalism that promoted tolerance of and respect for the growing social and

cultural diversity within the population. This policy replaced the White Australia Policy in 1972 (Castles 1992).

Immigration played a highly significant role in providing 60 per cent of workers. This period also brought about a marked segmentation of the labour market by area of origin and gender. Migrants of non-English-speaking background, mainly from Eastern and Southern Europe, were concentrated in infrastructure or heavy industry working at manual unskilled and semi-skilled jobs whilst English-speaking background migrants were found in jobs across the occupational and industrial spectrum (ibid).

Australia’s evolution from an economy based on primary and manufacturing industries to one of service shifted the focus of policies in the eighties to skilled migration (Year Book Australia 2001). Aided by the introduction of the Numerical Multifactor Assessment Scheme in 1979, policies were poised to meet shortfalls in the labour market, both in terms of filling gaps and raising the overall skill level of the Australian labour force (DIMA 2001c). In 2003-2004, 76.7 percent who were in the labour force prior to migrating were skilled with computer professionals, accountants and managers/administrators representing the top three occupations of migrants (DIMA 2005). Growing international competition for the limited pool of skilled migrants resulted in new visa categories accommodating those not intending to settle permanently in Australia (Iredale 1995, 2001).

3.2.4 AUSTRALIA’S FOREIGN LABOUR FORCE

It is difficult to make generalisations about the labour force and other characteristics of the immigrants owing to the enormous diversity in the group. According to Hugo (2001b, 2001c), they have been largely represented in manufacturing (31.8%) and in property and business services (28.2%). The Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (2005) reported that this pattern of employment remains, with migrants least represented in agriculture, forestry and fishing (10.6% of workforce).

Australia’s immigration program is fairly complex: constantly changing in response to the economic and political demands meeting the country. Migrants are

allowed into Australia under two main programs: humanitarian and non- humanitarian.

The humanitarian program is mainly for people seeking refuge from persecution in their own country. There are three set levels in this program: Refugee Program, Special Humanitarian Program and the Special Assistance Category. During the period July 1997 and June 1998, 12,055 were provided with visas under the Humanitarian Program: 4,010 refugees, 4,636 Special Humanitarian and 3,409 Special Assistance (DIMA 1999a). The Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (2003) reported that the figure of 12,000 was maintained for 2002-2003.

The non-humanitarian program consists of three main categories: Family, Skill and Special Eligibility. Within each category there are several components. The Business Skills, Employer Nominated Scheme, Distinguished Talent, Spouses and Dependent Children components are demand driven and not subject to capping. The Independent and Skilled-Australian Linked, Parents, Fiances and Interdependents components, however, are subject to capping (DIMA 2003).

Under the Family Migration category, a permanent resident or citizen of Australia is permitted to sponsor their family members as potential migrants (ibid).

The Skill Migration component is designed specifically to ensure that prospective migrants possess the skills that are in demand in Australia. Entry is based on point selection criteria, which includes age, skills and English language ability. Under this scheme, prospective migrants can choose to sponsor themselves or be sponsored by relatives or employers (ibid). In 2001, links were made with the overseas students program to accommodate those seeking to migrate without having to leave Australia. This move was made in an attempt to retain more young, English speaking skilled migrants who have been trained in Australia (ABS 2001). According to the Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (2003), this resulted in numbers from the Skill Stream to double that of the period 2000-2001. This scheme also includes entrepreneurs who are interested in making capital investments and distinguished individuals with unique talents that are of benefit to Australia. The information collected on the applicants is stored in The Skill Matching Database which is accessible to state and territory governments and employers for their necessary recruitments (Hugo 2001b).

The Special Eligibility category caters for former residents and citizens of Australia, New Zealanders and children born to Australian citizens overseas (ibid).

The Skill Stream has the highest level of visas granted on record. For the period 2001-2002, there were 57.5 percent in the Skill Stream, 40.9 percent in the Family Stream and 1.6 percent in the Special Eligibility Stream (DIMA 2003).

Next to the United States and Canada, Australia is the third largest of the traditional countries of settlement (Stalker 1994). However, not all immigrants who come to work in Australia choose to reside permanently. Particularly in recent years, the numbers of temporary working residents have been growing. These comprise of working holiday makers, overseas students, and those already employed in the social/cultural (entertainers, visiting academics, sports people and religious workers), international relations (foreign government officials such as diplomats) and skilled areas (sponsored employees comprising senior managers, executives, specialists and technical workers). In terms of temporary working residents by occupation, the largest group consisted of the professionals (46%). The managers, administrators and associate professionals made up about 41 per cent and the remaining 13 per cent were those employed in the trades, clerical, sales, service etc. (Hugo 2001c).

It was reported that as at 30 June 1999, there were 53,000 overstayers in Australia. Of this number, about 27 percent had been in the country for more than nine years. China, Phillipines, Fiji, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, Germany, United Kingdom, USA, and Japan were the ten countries with the greatest number of estimated overstayers at this period (DIMA 1999b).

There has also been an increase in the numbers of unauthorised arrivals. In 1999-2000, approximately 5,870 arrivals were apprehended for not going through the official immigration procedures, 94 per cent more than the previous year. Of these, 71 per cent had arrived by boat and the remaining by air. The majority who arrived by sea was Chinese and most that came by air were from Iraq (ABS 2002).