Data Collection

Since case studies are empirically omnivorous, data collection is typically multi-method and multi-source. This research used semi-structured interviews and documents. Interviewing is a method of data collection, information or opinion gathering that specifically involves asking a series of questions. According to Gary (2006) an interview is a conversation between people in which one person has the role of researcher. The choice of interview in a research will depend on the focus of that research. Interviews are associated with both quantitative

109

and qualitative social research and are often used alongside other methods. Although interviews can be generally defined and have some commonality of meaning, they can vary enormously in terms of the context, or setting, in which they are carried out, the purpose they serve, as well as how they are structured and conducted, and this gives rise to many different types of interviews (Davies, 2006), ranging from structured to unstructured, (Patton, 1990, Neuman, 2006). Also, interviews are described in different ways as a meeting or a dialogue between people where personal and social interaction occur, (Davies, 2006), ‘guided conversations,’ Rubin and Rubin (1995) and conversations ‘with a purpose,’ (Burgess 1982). Similarly, research interviews are based on the conversations of everyday life - with structure and purpose that are defined and controlled by the researcher. According to Kvale (1996), interviews allow people to convey to others a situation from their own perspective and in their own words. There is no common procedure for research interviews, but an interview investigation can be outlined in seven method stages: thematising, designing the study so that it addresses the research questions, the interview itself, transcribing, analysing, verification, and reporting. The research interview is characterized by a methodological awareness of question forms, a focus on the dynamics of interaction between interviewer and interviewee, and also a critical attention to what is said, (Kvale, 1996). Interviews provide an avenue to access people’s perceptions, meanings, definitions of situations, and constructions of reality (Punch, 2005). In case study research, interview is one of the most important sources of information (Yin, 2003). According to Cohen and Manion (1997), the interview can serve a number of distinct purposes. First, it can be used as the means of gathering information about a person’s knowledge, values, preferences and attitudes. Secondly, it can be used to test out a hypothesis or to identify variables and their relationships. Thirdly, it can be used in conjunction with other research techniques such as surveys, to follow up issues. Arguably, interviews are also preferable to questionnaires where questions are either open-ended or

110

more complex, or where the logical order of questions is difficult to predetermine. Whether an interview is successful in eliciting the range and depth of answers required will depend to a large extent on the skills of the interviewer. Essentially, semi-structured interview is the favoured approach, where there is a need to attain highly personalised data and there are opportunities for probing further issues that come up during an interview. The research uses the semi-structured interview as it allowed for both follow-up and also probing of the responses to which enriched or clarify the qualitative aspects of the data gathered. Semi- structured interviews are non-standardised and are often used in qualitative analysis. The order of questions may also change, depending on which direction the interview takes. Indeed, additional questions may be asked, including some which were not anticipated at the start of the interview as new issues arise, (Gary, 2006).

The semi-structured interview allows for probing of views and opinions where it is desirable for respondents to expand on their answers. This is vital when a phenomenological approach is being taken. That is, where the objective is to explore subjective meanings that respondents ascribe to concepts or events. Such probing may also allow for the diversion of the interview into new pathways, which were not originally considered as part of the interview, help towards meeting the research objectives (Gary, 2006; 216). Accordingly, data obtained from semi-structured interviews is generally rich and in depth, giving the researcher a fuller understanding of the informants’ perspective on the topic under investigation, and the reasons behind the views and opinions expressed (Simons, 2009).

The use of semi-structured interview in case study research allows the researcher to explore the ‘why’ questions which will in turn enrich the data. Yin (2003) noted that in most situations, case study interviews must be open-ended in nature, so that the researcher can ask respondents about the facts of the matter as well as their opinions about events. The researcher believes that the use of probes, prompts and a flexible questioning style that semi-

111

structure interviews provide, (both in terms of the ways in which questions are asked and the order in which they are delivered), will give the researcher a great opportunity to explore and encourage respondents to give their detailed views on the issues raised or mentioned in the process of interviewing. According to Henn et al., (2006), the use of probes and prompts in qualitative interviews enable the researcher and the respondent to enter into a dialogue about the topic in question, and this can be helpful in that the researcher and the respondent are given the opportunity to query questions and answers, and to verify that they have a shared understanding of meaning. In this sense Yin (2003) argued that this will turn the respondents into ‘informants’, thus making them crucial to the success of the case study. By using semi- structured interviews, respondents are also encouraged to provide examples in order to ground their narrative.

The interviewees included stakeholders, beneficiaries, official and staffs of the Fund. The interviewees were contacted by phone and the details of the research forwarded to them afterwards. The interviewees were asked to pick the time convenient for the interviews. Initially, it was anticipated that the number of interviewees will be 30, however 33 people were interviewed. For some of the interviewees, the interviews took place in their own offices, and for others it was done via the telephone. All interviews were recorded with the participants’ permission and transcribed verbatim. The interviews ranged from 1 hour to 1 hour 30 minutes. This was to ensure accuracy of reportage of the interviews, add to the veracity of the reporting. The recording provided an opportunity for the researcher also to take notes. This provided the researcher with an avenue to concentrate on the interviewees’ answers and prompt effectively (Bryman, 2008; Simons, 2009). Recordings are essential for accurate transcription as they provide the researcher the opportunity to re-listen to the interview in order to review and highlight points missed during the first time of listening.

112

The interviews were conducted in line with the requirements of the Northumbria University ethical guidelines. The interviewees were advised in advance of the issues to be addressed in the interview and the ethics form and consent form was sent to them in advance. The researcher provided the interviewees with an information sheet detailing the aims of the research and the structure the interview will take, before actually conducting the interview. Before the interview, the interviewees were asked whether they were still willing to take part in the interview and informed that they had right to withdraw their participation. In addition, to been provided with a consent form they were supplied with a summary of the research aims and objectives and an introductory letter from the researcher’s university. In addition, the privacy right of the interviewees was explained to each of them as they are also of paramount importance to the researcher. Most importantly, the interviewees were assured that the information gleaned from the interviews will be anonymised and confidentiality will be maintained in terms of disclosure, autonomy; respect the rights of individual, beneficence; doing good, non-maleficence; not doing harm, and justice; particularly equity are key principles of ethics in research (Munn and Drever, 1991; Gillham, 2000). Everyone who participates in a research study should have freely consented to participation, without being coerced or unfairly pressurized. This means they should be well- informed about what participation entails and reassured that declining will not affect any services they receive. While written consent may in some situations frighten the individuals you are talking to, you should at the very least obtain verbal consent. Confidentiality allows for the protection of the identity of the person from whom a researcher gathers information. If collected, the identity of the participants must be protected at all times and not be left lying around in notebooks or un-protected computer files (Gillham, 2000).

113 4.3.1. Sampling

Sampling refers to strategies for assuring that you have the ‘right’ cases in your study (Flick, 2011:77). All research including qualitative research involves sampling (Punch, 2005). Sampling is a technique used to select groups from a wider population and this is done because it is not usually possible to include the whole populations in the research, (Davidson, 2006). It is important to note that qualitative and quantitative researchers approach sampling differently (Neuman, 2006). However, it has been noted that qualitative researchers focus less on a representativeness of the sample than on how the sample or small collection of cases, units, or activities, illuminate social issues. As such, the primary purpose of sampling is to collect specific cases, events, or actions that can clarify and deepen understanding. Turning now to probability and non- probability sampling, probability sampling is one in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined. With non-probability sampling, qualitative researchers rarely draw a representative sample from a huge number of cases to intensely study the sampled cases. For this research, non- probability quota sampling was used to identify the interviewees. Non-probability sampling is often used where it is not feasible, practical or theoretically sensible, to otherwise undertake random sampling. Quota sampling is a non- probability method of selection that aims to make the sample representative of the target population by setting controls on sample composition to make it match known population characteristics, (Sturgis, 2006). In the case of Nigeria, there are 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory, which are then grouped into 6 geo-political zones. Due to the size of the country and the number of beneficiaries it will be difficult to use the probability sampling technique.

114

A major drawback of quota sampling is that, since it is not a probability sample, it is not possible to estimate the standard error and so the researcher cannot calculate confidence intervals or use inferential statistics. A further limitation of quota sampling is that the researcher must know the proportion of people with each characteristic in the population in order to specify the quota controls, (Sturgis, 2006). Nevertheless, non-probability sampling is adequate for case studies because the aim is not to use the results as a basis for wider generalizations, nor to infer from the sample to the general population. The aim is, rather, to learn something from the behaviour of the case being studied (Flyvberg, 2006).

Based on the research question, purpose sampling was used to identify the interviewees. Purposive sampling is defined as the selection of participants who have knowledge or experience of the area being investigated. Purposive sampling is virtually synonymous with qualitative research (Palys, 2008). According to Punch (2005: 187), purposive sampling means sampling in a deliberate way, with purpose or focus in mind. It is about identifying and selecting individuals or groups of individuals that are especially knowledgeable about or experienced with a phenomenon of interest (Cresswell and Plano Clark 2011 cited in Palnikas et al., 2013). However, it is sometimes argued that non-probability methods such as purposive sampling are not free from bias as informants or interviewees may be chosen out of convenience, or from recommendations, from knowledgeable people. However, despite its inherent bias, purposeful sampling can provide reliable and robust data (Tongco, 2007). The strength of the method actually lies in its intentional bias, (Bernard 2002; Lewis & Sheppard 2006). This research uses the stakeholder purposeful sampling, which is particularly useful in the context of evaluation research and policy analysis. As an approach, it involves the identifying of the major stakeholders who are involved in designing, administering programme or service being evaluated (Palys, 2008).

115 4.3.2. Documents

According to Punch (2005), printed and archival documents are both a rich source of data in social science research. For this research, documentary data will be used for (triangulation. Documents are important in triangulation, where an intersecting set of different methods and data types is used in a single project, (Denzin1989). Also, documents can help verify the correct spellings and titles or names of organisations that might have been mentioned in the interview and can provide specific details to corroborate information from other sources (Yin (2003).

Documents are important tools for social researchers as they can provide context to what is been researched in a number of ways, including but not limited to timelines and historical perspectives. This of course, can help the researcher understand how things have progressed over the years and how questions for fieldwork can be framed. Sometimes documents provide somewhat an insight into a range of issues- both in terms of scope and reach of the topic under investigation. The more reasons why Yin (2003) argued that documents provide enormous ideas about questions or other areas to explore in data analysis. That been the case, it is important for a researcher using document pays particular attention to that selection of documents in order to avoid bias. Some scholars have been very critical of the use of documents in qualitative research, because it is assumed that documents contain unmitigated truth, however, Yin (2003) argued that the case study researcher is less likely to be misled by documents because they are intended to provide supplementary details to other information that has been gathered through other data collection techniques, and in this case, it is semi- structured interview. Documents used were Ministry of Education Reports, TETFund publications, public sector reforms and reports and other government reports in the area of public sector management, etc. The use of these documents has helped significantly in providing contextual data gathered through the semi-structured interviews with key

116

stakeholders and employees of the TETFund. The researcher also did archival research to locate documents of historical importance, especially the military decrees and the evolution and growth of the Nigerian Civil service.

4.4. Ethics

Ethical issues are very important in all types of research. Ethical issues are about access, consent, ownership of data, confidentiality and anonymity. It is about careful negotiation of access to the case study (the organisation- people), seeking informed consent from participants, agreeing a protocol for the ownership of data (e.g. asking participants to confirm the content of interview records before using them in the research), ensuring confidentiality of data collected during the research, and ensuring anonymity for all participants and key stakeholders.

According to Northumbria University Research Ethics and Governance Handbook (2014-15) informed consent is one of the core ethical principles of conducting research with human participants and named data. Informed consent is important in research because it respects the autonomy of the participants and protects their welfare. The three main elements of ensuring consent: are (1) adequate appropriate information to make an informed decision; (2) Voluntariness (with no coercion or undue influence); and (3) competence and/ or autonomy (Northumbria University, 2014). The author provided the interviewees with content form (Sample of this is in Appendix 11). In addition, author provided the interviewees with information on what the research is all about and mentioned to them the importance of confidentiality. According to the Northumbria University Research Ethnic and Governance Handbook (2014-15, p14) information about the study should be presented to the participants and it must include: the study title and an invitation to participate; the purpose of the study; why the participant has been chosen, the voluntary nature of participation, including the right

117

to withdraw from the research at any time etc. This procedure was adhered to in the process of carrying out the semi-structured interviews.

In addition, the issue of confidentiality was mentioned to the participants/ interviewees in relation to the presentation of the findings. In the process of interpreting the data from the findings, the interviewees were anonymised. According to the Northumbria University Research Ethnic and Governance Handbook (2014-15, p24) the publication of personal data must be done in accordance with method described when consent was provided by the individuals. In relation to the recording of interviews with both the beneficiaries and staff of the Fund as well as other government officials (as mentioned above) the author asked their permission for the interviews to be recorded. Whilst some of the interviewees acceded to the request, others declined and preferred notes to be taken.