Data trustworthiness

In qualitative research, the terms validity and reliability are also applicable, with validity referring to the integrity and application of the methods undertaken and the precision with which the findings accurately reflect the data. Reliability describes the consistency within the employed analytic procedures (Noble &Smith, 2015). However, unlike quantitative researchers who apply statistical methods for establishing validity and reliability of research findings, qualitative researchers aim to design and incorporate methodological strategies to ensure the trustworthiness of the findings (Anney, 2014; Loh, 2013).Lincoln and Guba (1985) propose four alternatives for assessing the trustworthiness of data in qualitative research, that is, credibility, dependability, conformability, and transferability.

3.7.3.1 Credibility

Credibility refers to the confidence that can be placed in the truth of the research findings (Macnee & McCabe, 2008). It establishes whether or not the research findings represent plausible information drawn from the participants’ original data and is a correct interpretation of the participants’ original views (Anney, 2014). According to Merriam (2009), the aspect of credibility deals with the question “How congruent are the findings with reality?” There are a number of credibility strategies a researcher can employ, which include: prolonged and varied field experience, pilot study, reflexivity,

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triangulation, member checking, peer examination, frequent debriefing, establishing authority of researcher, and structural coherence. In this study, not all of the mentioned credibility strategies were employed. With regard to prolonged and varied field experience, the researcher developed an early familiarity with the culture of participants before data collection dialogues took place. Since the seven government secondary schools werein town and relatively close to the researcher’s workplace, preliminary visits tothe schools were done just to get an overview of the school cultures. Pilot testing of the interview schedule wasanother strategy the researcher employed to ensure credibility of findings. Pilot-testing ensures that a research instrument can be used properly and that the information obtained will be consistent (Simon, 2011). In this study, the credibility triangulation strategy waseffectedthrough the use of a wide range of informants, that is, teachers, school heads, G & C focal personsand learners, all to provide data on teachers’ role in the promotion of CFS environments. There was also triangulation of interview responsesand responses from open-ended questions in both teacher and learner questionnaires. Member checks of data transcripts to assess accuracy were conducted on the spot, in the course, and at the end of data collection dialogues. This was done through making informants read the transcripts of dialogues to which they participated to check on expression misrepresentation. Last but not least, frequent debriefing sessions between the researcher and the supervisor to get input on alternative approaches were consistently employed.

3.7.3.2 Transferability

Transferability refers to the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be transferred to other contexts with other participants. It is believed to be the interpretive equivalent of generalisability (Anney, 2014). The researcher is supposed to facilitate the transferability judgment by a potential use through thick description and purposeful sampling. In the majority of cases, the small samples in qualitative research are usually deemed unsuitable for generalisability. However, some researchers argue that transferability is all about the researcher’s ability to demonstrate how, in terms of the contextual data the case study locations compare with other environments (Loh, 2013, Merriam, 2009 & Yin, 2011). In the case of the current study, the number of schools involved was significant and acceptable for the results to be transferable. Provision of

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thick description of the phenomenon under study was used as a strategy to ensure transferability of findings. The researcher gave detailed description of teachers’ role in the promotion of CFS environments representing the actual teacher experiences in the seven government secondary schools. The criteria used for the selection of research participants were well elaborated to justify the inclusion of specific informants who were thought strategic and relevant.

3.7.3.3 Dependability

Dependability is closely related to credibility, since demonstration of credibility goes some distance in ensuring dependability (Yin, 2011). Dependability refers to the stability of findings over time. It involves participants’evaluation ofthe findings, interpretations and recommendations of the study to make sure that they are all supported by the data collected (Cohen et al, 2011). Dependability can be established using; audit trail, code- recode, overlapping methods, and ensuring that the processes are reported in detail to enable future researchers to repeat the work or gain same results (Anney, 2014 & Yin, 2011). In the current study, the researcher ensured dependability of findings by adequately explaining the research design and its implementation.

3.7.3.4 Confirmability

Confirmability refers to the degree to which the results of an inquiry could be confirmed or corroborated by other researchers. It is concerned with establishing that data and interpretations of the findings are not figments of the researcher’s imagination, but is clearly derived from the data (Macnee & McCabe, 2008; Merriam, 2009). In other words, confirmability is all about the researcher’s comparable concern for objectivity. According to Bowen (2010), confirmability can be achieved through an audit trail, reflexive journal and triangulation. In the current research, triangulation of research approaches, instruments and sources (participants) was employed to promote confirmability and reduce researcher bias. With regard to audit trail, the researcher maintained a log of all research activities, developed memos, and documented all data collection and analysis procedures throughout the study. This approach enabled the researcher to reflect on how the study was unfolding.

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3.7.3.5 Measures to ensure data trustworthiness

A number of measures were employed in this study to ensure credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability of data. The use of a pilot tested semi-structured interview guide with voluntary participants ensured data credibility. The researcher strove to produce thick descriptions of the problem under study with the intention of capturing the actual teacher experiences in relation to the CFS concept. Also, the researcher’s collaboration with the supervisor, peers and CFS experts assisted in providing more relevant insights for necessary improvements, thus heightening the aspect of credibility.

The researcher precisely described the selection of relevant participants to be involved in this study, duration time for data collection, and the number of sessions to be conducted. All was done to ensure transferability of the research findings. Interview data transcripts were made as detailed as possible and were kept safely for necessary revisits. By doing so, the researcher ensured dependability and confirmability of findings.