Derived Role Concepts

From the different versions or perspectives of role theory discussed, it can be noted that this is a fruitful approach to understanding humans and society. As a result of this notion, various derivatives and additional role concepts have emerged and developed. Five of these role related concepts are discussed and linked to the current study.

2.2.3.1 Role confusion

Role confusion is a situation where an individual has trouble determining which role he or she should assume in a certain scenario or situation. For example, if a teacher happens to be at the same school with her or his daughter, in a disciplinary hearing, what role should the teacher assume? In the current study, it may imply that many times, as teachers strive to promote CFS environments, they are confronted with multiple roles resulting in role confusion. In some school contexts, this has forced teachers to become standbys (Capmos, 2005).

2.2.3.2 Role conflict

Role conflict results when an individual encounters tensions as the result of incompatible roles. In most cases, role conflict tends to violate both the chain of command principle and the unity of command principle in classic organizational role theory. The chain of command principle refers to a clear, single flow of authority that leads to desired goal attainment in hierarchical organizations (Whelan, 2014). The unity of command principle requires that there be only one leader with one plan toward an objective and the subordinate has to receive orders from one superior (Tang & Chang, 2010; Safaria, Othman & Wahab, 2011). In such situations, role conflict will occurs within the same person. In a school system, this is likely to happen when teachers are expected to assume a counsellor or leadership role. This intra-role conflict can manifest in four ways: conflict between defined role behaviours and the focal person’s values; conflict between defined role behaviour and resources, including time and the capabilities of the focal person; conflict caused by different roles, with different or

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incompatible expectations; and conflicting expectations occasioned by incompatible policies or standards of evaluation (Owens & Valesky, 2007). In some cases, role conflict can happen between two people who are unable to establish a satisfactory complementary or reciprocal relationship. The present study sought to examine the type of role conflict which secondary school teachers are likely to experience in their effort to promote child-friendly schooling.

2.2.3.3 Role ambiguity

Role ambiguity can be defined in terms of unpredictability in outcome and response, or lack of clarity in requirements. It can come from contradictory elements or vagueness in job roles or expectations (Owens &Valesky, 2007; Whelan, 2014).

2.2.3.4 Role strain

Role strain refers to the felt difficulty in fulfilling role obligations. In contrast to role conflict, where tension is felt between two competing roles, the tension in role strain comes from just one role. In role strain, expectations may be beyond what the focal person is able to achieve or the individual may feel pushed to the limits of ownabilities. It is also assumed that role strain is a result of role overload. Role overload describes situations in which employees feel that there are too many responsibilities or activities expected of them in the light of the time available, their abilities and other constraints (Whelan, 2014; Zhou et al, 2014). Some of the challenges teachers may encounter in the promotion of CFS environments are likely to be related to the propositions of these derived role concepts. This study therefore, sought to establish how role strain may negatively affect teachers in their effort to promote child-friendly school environments, wherever it surfaced, and how it could be managed.

2.2.3.5 Role distance

Role distancing is a strategy that allows the individual to play the role but to deny ‘the virtual self’ that is implied in the role for the allocating performers. A variety of signals may be used to convey role distancing which include: people explaining their lack of commitment to the role in a straight-forward manner or while enacting the role and people behaving in a way which contradicts with the role (Boland, 2013). In some cases, individuals play a role but remain detached from it to avoid any negative aspects

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of the role (Thompson & Hickey, 2005). In school settings, teachers may be found to role distance from the implementation of educational reforms such as CFS if they do not clearly understand the initiative, or they are not supported enough to effectively promote it. It was therefore, important in the present study to examine what caused teachers to role distance from their expected behaviours in the promotion of CFS environments and ascertain how this affected learners.

2.2.3.6 Role embracement

Role embracement refers to the complete adoption of a role. When a role is truly embraced, the self disappears completely into the role. An earnest embracement of a role involves three things which are an admitted or expressed attachment to the role; a demonstration of qualifications and capacities for performing it; and an active engagement or spontaneous involvement in the role activity at hand (Thompson & Hickey, 2005). In examining the role of teachers in the promotion of CFS environments, these derived concepts of the role helped in establishing teachers’ understanding of their expected role, strategies they employed to promote child-friendly schooling and some of the challenges that hindered teachers from promoting CFS environments.