Research has also examined the role of work placement, internship, professional year development schemes within the preparation of work ready graduates (Harvey, Moon & Geall, 1997; Billett, 2001; Abanteriba, 2006; Gracia, 2010; Freudenberg, Cameron & Brimble, 2010; Freudenberg, Brimble & Cameron, 2011; Leong & Kavanagh, 2013).
Work Integrated Learning (WIL), is a phrase that is synonymous with other terms such as: internships; co-operative learning; industry placements; experiential learning and action learning has a long history within the education system, both at a tertiary and vocational level. Reeders, (2000) defined WIL as “student learning for credit designed to occur either in the workplace or within a campus setting that emulates aspects of the workplace” (p205). Billett, (2001) maintained that WIL is a term used to describe educational activities that integrate theoretical learning with application in a workplace, profession, career or future employment. Patrick, Peach, Pocknee, Webb, Fletcher & Pretto (2008) defined WIL as an “umbrella term for a range of approaches and strategies that integrate theory with the practice of work within a purposefully designed curriculum” (piv).
Research suggests that the importance of WIL cannot be underestimated. According to the National Strategy on Work Integrated Learning in University Education (2015) “the extent to which Australia is able to adapt and develop…will depend in large part on how well our institutions and business sectors collaborate” (p1). The strategy went on to state:
“WIL facilitates the transition between preparing for and operating in a high skills work environment. It empowers the student to understand, adapt to and apply skills in the workplace. It helps ensure they are equipped to plan, instigate and navigate careers in an environment where conceptual, adaptive, personal, technical and vocational skills - their human capital – will be continually drawn on and challenged. As such WIL helps build capabilities that reduce the personal and community risk of economic downturn and bolsters what we need to weather and recover from those downturns. WIL is about producing the highly skilled workforce to meet industry and community needs” (p2).
Research undertaken on WIL programs has identified the following benefits: increased student job knowledge and skills, with improved attitudes and behaviours towards work readiness (Hughes & Moore, 1999); and the development of generic skills (Patrick & Crebert, 2004). Freudenberg et al. (2011) advised that higher education institutions are developing their own set of graduate attributes, drawing on generic skills research such as the Department of Education Science and Training report, to develop WIL curriculum (Litchfield, Nettleton & Taylor, 2008, as cited in Freudenberg et al. 2011, p82).
Harvey et al. (1997), conducted a study, which involved the analysis of 258 interviews, conducted across groups of strategic managers, line managers, graduate and non-graduate employees in 91 different organisations. The research found that respondents significantly endorsed work-based placements as a means of helping students develop attributes that would help them to be successful at work’ (Harvey et al., 1997).
4.4.1 Contemporary Best Practice WIL Programs
This final strand of literature examined best practice WIL programs in order to better evaluate the PYP model. Abanteriba’s contributory research (2006) proffered an example of a successfully established WIL program - the International Industry Experience and Research Program (IIERP). The research program is run by Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) in association with industry providers within and outside of Australia. Abanteriba noted that in order for graduates in order to be globally employable, they should not only be technically competent, but “also be aware of and sensitive to the salient differences in work ethic in different cultural environments” (p283).
The object of the program is to provide students of engineering access to a myriad of vocational training and research programs in international companies and research institutions around the globe in order to establish an intrinsic link between professional competence and cross-cultural awareness. The program has developed partnerships between various disciplines at RMIT and about 140 companies in 12 different developed countries (p284). Benefits for the students are threefold: the opportunity of early exposure to a global work environment in different cultural and ethical settings; acquisition of the requisite vocational skills necessary for professional development; and the opportunity to improve their employability later as graduates in the global job market (p285). In terms of employer benefits, Abanteriba argued an involvement at an early stage in shaping the attitudes and skills of the future labour force for the requisite industry sector. Since development of the labour force for any company in terms of its unique strategic and ethical requirements is a long-term process, the involvement of companies at this stage of student professional development is highly valuable (p290). A survey of local companies reported that about 80 percent of them would preferably employ a graduate who had, during the course of his or her studies, undertaken an international industry training programme in conformity with the goals stipulated for IIERP (p289). Freudenberg, et al., (2010) stated that WIL “improves the transition from university to work and productivity outcomes for the employer and the economy”.
Gracia’s (2010) research involved a review of how female final year undergraduates perceived the experience of supervised work experience (SWE) placement and the implications on the use of SWE as an employability- development mechanism within higher education. The research was conducted at a UK business school and was based on female, third-year students (n = 33) enrolled in a BA (Hons) Accounting and Finance degree, each of whom undertook a 48-week period of work experience between their second and final years of study (p306). Approximately 91% (n = 30) of the students were aged 20–21 years, commenced their degree studies directly after ‘A’ levels or equivalent qualifications.
None of the participants had any prior professional work experience. As such, SWE offered these participants a first introduction to the professional accounting workplace, but more importantly, Gracia believed, presented what may have been the only opportunity these students had to develop work-based employability skills prior to graduating and seeking full-time employment (p307). Gracia reported that “all the interviewees experienced some form of gendered role allocation,” from being asked to make the tea for senior employees or fetch the lunch to being assigned the menial tasks of photocopying or general administrative duties (p308). One of the female SWE participants is quoted as reporting “Men do well here, not because they’re better at the job, they’re just taken more seriously and given more opportunities, just expected to do better” (p309). Gender ‘exclusionary signals” (p310) was a permeable theme throughout the research paper and provides a cautionary warning in perceiving that all WIL programs and experiences could be of equal value.
Freudenberg et al. (2011) examined a professional development program (PDP) developed at Griffith University. According to these researchers, the PDP was integrated into a business degree program, designed to “systematically develop students’ learning, employment and generic skills, and supplement their theoretical studies” (p79). The study surveyed student cohorts who had undertaken the PDP, at the end of first year, and again at the end of second year
to determine their perceptions of enhanced generic skills as a result of participation in the program.
The students were provided with a self-assessment tool that utilised ten broad capabilities, nine of which describe commonly identified areas of generic capabilities: interpersonal skills, self-management skills, learning and adaptability skills, problem-solving skills, concept and analysis skills, oral communication, team skills, information literacy skills, and written communication skills (p84). Overall, the cohorts reported a greater satisfaction in their generic skills as a result of their participation in the PDP (p87). The results, the researchers stated, support a PDP, with WIL components, in terms of the impact on students’ generic skills. Of particular note, they argued:
“are the significant gains in the generic skills capabilities of the students and the related maintained recognition of the perception of the importance of generic skills development in comparison to the students in the non-WIL degree. This, we contend, is related to the industry engagement in the PD Program, which allows the students to more clearly appreciate the link between their academic studies and their future careers, underscoring the value of a genuine WIL experience” (p90).
Leong & Kavanagh (2013) added to this body of literature in the explication of a best practice three stage WIL framework embedded within an Australian university undergraduate accounting program. The development of the framework was aimed at narrowing the expectations gap between industry, academia and students (p1). The three stage WIL included: a professional practicum; a work placement; an industry or community project. These elements are embedded throughout the three-year degree to build students’ capacity during their degree. In their first year, students are exposed to industry through course guest lecturers and cooperative learning group assignments to develop career self-management processes. In their second-year participation in a community or industry project aimed to put into practice the theory learned in a real-time exercise. The third year involved the option to complete of a capstone project involving a one semester professional practicum, more commonly known
as an internship.