The remit with which Birrell, Hawthorn and Richardson were charged was to build upon other studies of Australia’s skilled migration processes (DIMA, 2001; Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia Joint Standing Committee on Migration, 2004) so as to examine the efficiency and effectiveness of both the GSM and the points test and to consequently “recommend any changes deemed necessary to improve the administration, operation and outcomes of the GSM and points test” (p8) by February 2006. The subsequent report, entitled Evaluation of the General Skilled Migration Categories (Birrell et al., 2006) determined that rather than continue the status quo of the points system, the selection of skilled migrants should be determined by employment related factors
2 There are four components to the IELTS test: reading; writing; listening; and speaking. IELTS 5 is defined as a ‘modest’ user with a partial command of the language who copes with overall meaning though with many mistakes but should be able to handle basic communication in own field, whereas IELTS 6 is defined as a “competent” user with a generally effective command of the language who can use and understand fairly complex language and understands detailed reasoning (www.IELTS.org).
such as: “good English communication skills; the possession of valued vocational skills and Australian work experience in a nominated occupation” (Birrell et al. 2006, p166).
Indeed, in a research paper by Birrell (2006a) in the same year as the commissioned report, the author suggested that the admission of international students with insufficient English-language skills was occurring because of the number of pathways where students applying onshore could bypass an IELTS test. Birrell’s research determined that between 2002 to 2005 more than a quarter of international student enrolments and commencements in Australia were based on pathways that did not require or include formal test regimes. These included attending Australian secondary schools or undertaking enabling courses offered in VET and higher education (Birrell 2006b).
Birrell et al.’s subsequent report set out several recommendations to implement effective mechanisms to include employer specific criterion within the selection process. These recommendations included the revocation of MODL, the mechanism intended to target specific skill needs in relation to the GSM program and complement the supply of tertiary qualified Australians available to augment the Australian workplace. The report also called for the truncation of bonus and other points available to applicants and the introduction of a higher threshold standard of English for applicants to a minimum IELTS score of 6 across all four bands, as opposed to the previously recommended minimum IELTS score of 5 (Birrell et al., 2006, p166).
In an endeavour to assist onshore international-born, Australian-educated graduates wishing to gain permanent residency through the skilled migration category, the report proposed the establishment of a new temporary entry visa which would allow for a stay in Australia of two years with full work rights post- graduation. The report argued that in an endeavour to enhance their labour market work readiness, graduates wishing to obtain the suggested new visa option could pursue one of three options: an improvement in their English skills,
so as to obtain an IELTS score of 7 across all four bands;3 the completion of a “professional year” of additional studies in courses accredited by the relevant accrediting authority which would provide vocationally specific training designed to help applicants meet the requirements of Australian employers; or the completion of the equivalent of one year’s full-time work experience in a professional or trade level in their nominated occupation (p166).
The report went on to justify the three options by arguing:
“Communication skills are so important to job outcomes; it is appropriate that the level of English skills should be an important determinant of skilled migration selection. IELTS Band 6.0 is considered the minimum level necessary for an applicant to adequately perform the functions expected of a professional employee in most cases” (p171).
These new opportunities to gain permanent residency, including through the development of PYPs, which would be overseen by the specific Accounting, IT and Engineering professional associations, in conjunction with accredited professional education providers - the report suggested, was a way in which to equip migrant workers with a variety of predetermined work readiness skills (Birrell et al., 2006). The curriculum of this proposed work readiness program, the authors argued, should comprise of:
“Content that has been approved by the relevant accrediting authority … [and] comprise technical knowledge and practical on the job experience considered by the accrediting authority, employers and industry bodies to facilitate employment in Australia at the professional level. For example, in accounting, it may include courses which the professional accounting authorities regard as essential for professional status in the discipline” (p176-177).
Thus, the Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC), rebadged as the current Department of Immigration and Border Protection (DIBP), charged the Australian Computer Society (ACS), Engineering Education Australia (EEA), the educational entity of Engineers’ Australia and the Joint Accounting Bodies (JAB), as the appropriate professional accrediting associations to oversee the development and delivery of a professional program that would respond to the recommendations set out in the report. Those industry bodies implementing the
3 IELTS 7 is defined as a good user with an operational command of the language, with occasional inaccuracies, and an ability to handle complex language well and understand detailed reasoning. (IELTS, 2012)
PYPs were charged with the responsibility to “enhance the employability of a graduate and the contribution that they can make as a professional” (DIAC, 2008). In keeping with this mandate, the first PYP operations manual stated that the aim of the PYP “is a program of study aimed at increasing the employment skills and employability of recent international student graduates in order to assist to address Australia’s skill shortages in nominated occupations” (ACS, 2008). Since SMIPA is the primary model for the purposes of this research, the scale and demographics of the international student enrolments in accounting courses is worthy of note. From 2002-2011, Chinese students made up 49 percent of total enrolments in accounting courses, which translated to a total of 109,465 of the 223,833 enrolments within this period (AEI, 2012). In the period 2005-2012, a total of 63,675 accounting professionals were granted visas under the GSM program, representing the largest occupation category for that period (Ekanayake & Jackling, 2014). Yet, as the Minister for Immigration stated in a media release: A 2006 survey of new migrants found that 18 months after acquiring permanent residence, half of those who came in via the MODL were employed in that occupation, but a third of them were either unemployed or working in an unskilled job. In contrast, 80 per cent of migrants sponsored by an employer were working in a skilled job 18 months later, plus they were earning $16,000 more per year on average than those who had come via the MODL (Evans, 2010).
The perceived failure of international accounting, Australian-educated graduates to satisfy the supply-driven skills shortage within the accounting profession can be seen as a reason for the development of a Commonwealth gazetted PYP. During the six-year period 2008 - 2014, a total of 17,113 Australian-educated graduates undertook the PYP. The aggregated enrolments across the three programs were identified as: SMIPA, 10,740; ACS, 4,541; & EEA, 1,832 (DIBP), 2014).
In light of the speed with which the program curriculum framework was required4 the responsibility was given to Monash College, the commercial education arm
of Monash University,5 and a subsequent licensed provider of both the accounting and IT PYPs to develop the initial curriculum framework. The first delivery of the PYP began in 2008, consisting of graduates from the disciplines of Information Technology. The accounting and engineering programs followed early the following year. Interestingly, the ACS was charged a curriculum framework royalty fee by Monash College for each student that was enrolled within the PYP. However, both JAB and EEA were provided use of this curriculum framework by the Commonwealth Government free of charge. Irrespective of the variance in economic business models, the commonality of the curriculum framework across the programs, ensured the providers could develop face-to-face materials that might be taught to all PYP students simultaneously within the same cohorts. Thus, minimising the need to maintain differing educational learning outcomes and ensuring the streamlining of business expenses. The program’s business model was thereby established to allow for volume of delivery, across disciplines by the licensed providers. Although, class sizes were restricted within all three programs to a maximum of twenty-five students per class.
Each of these PYPs was overseen by the recognised, accrediting professional associations with delivery of the program achieved through the licensing of the program to PYP providers. Whilst there are some inherent similarities within the administration of the program, each professional association’s involvement is implemented through three distinctly different business models that will each be examined in turn. However, initially an examination of those characteristics common across the PYP ecosystem will be undertaken.
5 The original 2008 PYP Program curriculum was rewritten by the ACS education team, under the direction of this researcher, in 2013 following roundtable discussions amongst the professional bodies: Engineering Education Australia (EEA), the Joint Accounting Bodies (CPA Australia, ICAA and IPA) and the Australian Computer Society (ACS). The intent was to enhance the classroom learning outcomes of the program to better address Australian workforce development needs. The revised curriculum now included an embedded Certificate IV in Business, which is underpinned by two skills frameworks: The Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Readiness (DEEWR) Employability Skills Framework (2012) as well as The Australian Blueprint for Career Development (DEEWR, 2010). The curriculum was implemented across the Professional Year Providers of all 3 professional associations in June 2013, following formal approval from DIBP in April 2013.