Definition of Practical Work

Many science education literature used the terms laboratory work, experiment, investigation and practical work in reference to similar types of school science

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activities even though they may have distinct descriptions (Hodson, 1998). In fact, Hodson (1998) as well as Abrahams and Reiss (2012) pointed out that the term practical work is mainly used in Australia, New Zealand and European science education literature while North America generally use the term laboratory work and experiment “virtually as synonyms” (Hodson, 1998, p. 153). Since it is commonly used in European science education literature, Abrahams and Reiss (2012) emphasized that they use the term practical work as an overarching term. They suggested that, the term practical work:

refers to any type of science teaching and learning activity in which learners at some point, working either individually or in small groups, are involved in manipulating and/or observing real objects and materials (p.1). Similarly, the Science Community Representing Education [SCORE] (2008) defines practical work as learning experiences in which learners can also interact with secondary sources of data such as observing the stars, taking photos of the Earth’s landscape and geography in order to understand their natural environment better. In other words, practical work is commonly used to refer to any science teaching, learning and assessment activity that involves learners to experience the handling and observing of real objects and phenomena.

Practical work as science activities are not characterized by the location that they are conducted in but by the type of experience that learners would involve in (Abrahams & Millar, 2008). These types of school science activities can be undertaken in school laboratories, inside or outside a classroom or beyond the school precinct, in a natural ecological environment or at home (Miller, 2004). According to Abrahams and Reiss (2012), practical work provides an opportunity wherein learners would learn school science by tangible experience and practice.

Practical work involves firsthand experience in which the five human senses of touch, smell, taste, hear and sight can be used to handle and observe phenomena, objects and organisms (Harrison, 2016; Hodson, 1998). For example, the experience of seeing and feeling how the forces of magnets attract or repel each other; hear and see the test for the popping sound of oxygen; seeing micro-organisms like plants cells using microscopes as well as making connections with simple electrical circuits. Basically,

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these experiences do not occur in normal everyday lives of learners. Therefore, such practical work in school science can be seen as an opportunity for learners to learn and experience science which associates with developing the understanding of the NoS.

However, Osborne (2015) asserted that practical work is not all about experiencing phenomena and manipulating objects or material substances, it is a cognitive activity. According to Osborne (2015), “the defining feature of science is that, it is a set of ideas about the material and living world” (p. 16). In fact, Oakeshott (1933) pointed out that science begins with a world of scientific ideas. As such, it is crucial for science teachers to be clear about the science ideas that learners supposed to experience and construct in practical work. Bell (2005) stated that practical work is a thinking activity wherein learners and teachers constructed understanding and not solely to manipulate objects and observe. Given the notion that science is a set of ideas, practical work provides an opportunity for learners to learn by experience the understanding of constructing and verifying scientific ideas with their science teachers.

Learning by experience with material substances encompasses the notion of establishing procedural understanding of constructing scientific knowledge. Hence, “one particular set of ideas that is essential to the doing of all practical work is encapsulated by the concept of procedural knowledge” (Osborne, 2015, p. 20). Practical work provides the opportunity for learners to experience the procedural understanding of making meaning, collecting and interpreting data as well as constructing their understanding of scientific knowledge (Hodson, 1998). Basically, “procedural understanding has been used to describe the understanding of ideas about evidence, which underpin an understanding of how to proceed” (Glaesser, Gott, Roberts & Cooper, 2009, p. 597). Engaging learners in practical work would help them develop a broader understanding of epistemic and procedural ideas that guide the practice of science (Osborne, 2014). Practical work provides the opportunity for the learners and science teachers to experience and rationalise the messiness of epistemic processes in science. This is one of the features of NoS.

For the purpose of this literature review, practical work in science education is regarded as an overarching term. Practical work refers to school science activities which provide learners the opportunity to learn through hands-on, social interaction and cognitive experiences. Practical work also provides the opportunity for learners to

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develop their cognition and thinking processes in constructing procedural knowledge and conceptual understanding in science. In other words, practical work enables learners to experience the NoS which encompasses the notion of sociocultural and epistemic understanding of science. As such, practical work involves a spectrum of activities that can be carried out not only within the laboratories or school precincts but also in the natural settings outside of the school context. While the term practical work is used in this literature review and thesis as an overarching term, the terms such as laboratory work, experiments, investigations and field work are also used at times to emphasize their contexts. That said, it is significant for this study to identify both trainee and practising science teachers’ definition and purpose of practical work.