Description of the Typology of Learning

The Typology of Learning conceptual continuum may be used for selecting and sorting educational content, moving students forward on the Learner Maturity Continuum and for devising or choosing educative teacher-student interactions and learning experiences (Bevis & Watson 1989:91). However, it is the contention of the researcher that the unpredictable, evolving and constantly changing nature of nursing practice demands a nurse who not only has a sound knowledge base but one who is able to integrate her knowledge at the bedside, that is, to obtain praxis. Therefore, the main outcome of the Typology of Learning should be the facilitation of cognitive development to empower the student to progress along the learning continuum to become an educated, caring nurse who is able to be reflective-in- practice, manage diverse nursing situations by employing reason and decision-making that is contextually based. McGovern and Valiga (1997:29) state that more advanced levels of cognitive development are a prerequisite for students to think in more complex ways and engage in critical and independent thinking and moral reasoning.

Consequently, students need to implement the Bevis and Watson contextual, syntactical and inquiry educative types of learning in order to demonstrate cognitive growth which is defined by McGovern and Valiga (1997:29) as an ability to “employ independent decision-making, provide nursing care despite conflicting or ambiguous information, engage in critical thinking, and appreciate that a particular decision may be right for some but not for others”.

According to Bevis and Watson (1989:92) the Typology of Learning conceptual continuum (see appendix G), consists of six types of learning. The first three; item, directive and rationale learning can be placed on the immature side of the Learner Maturity Continuum and the last three; contextual, syntactical and inquiry on the mature side of the continuum. The first three types of learning lead to training and the last three types to education.

It is important to remember that all the types of learning are appropriate depending on the circumstances of the learning experiences (Brady 2005:7). During her education, a nurse has to acquire certain skills, for example, taking a temperature, where item, directive and rationale

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learning may be the appropriate types of learning to implement. However, Bevis and Watson (1989:73, 87-88), stress that the emphasis should be on the education and not the training aspect of the student; that the learning continuum be ultimately extended to range from training to education.

2.5.2.2.1 Item learning

This category deals with the student learning separate pieces of information, individual factors and simple relationships such as lists. Item learning helps acquire skills or tasks mechanically and ritualistically, for example how to bath a baby (Bevis & Krulik 1991:363; Bevis & Watson 1989:91; see appendix G).

Item learning is reminiscent of the work undertaken in Scandinavia, by Marton and Svensson (1982) and Marton and Saljo (1984) which is described in a study undertaken by Leino-Kilpi (1989:62). These authors describe an atomistic or surface approach to learning. During the atomistic or surface approach to learning, the student concentrates on facts, details and separate parts and does not attempt to achieve an integral picture of the subject matter (Gravett 1995(a):2; Masitsa 2006:489; see appendix G). Details or facts are not combined with reference to the main theme. The latter aspect may also be assessed or measured by inspecting tests and assessing learning sessions. The student adopts a passive attitude with no personal involvement. Thus, the outcome remains narrow and restricted, that is, surface learning occurs (Gravett 1995(a):2; Hattie & Watkins 1988:345; Leino-Kilpi 1989:62-63; Mountford & Rogers 1996:1129).

In line with the above finding, McGovern and Valiga (1997:29-30) found that students tend to be at the lower levels, that is, dualism and multiplicity, of Perry’s scheme of cognitive/intellectual and ethical development rather than at the more advanced levels of relativism and commitment. The scheme consists of four major categories namely dualism, multiplicity, relativism and commitment. Each category is described in detail using nine specific positions on the scale (see figure 2.2).

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Perry Position

Perry Category

Dualism Multiplicity Relativism Commitment (Mc Govern & Valiga 1997:30)

FIGURE 2.2: PERRY’S SCHEME OF INTELLECTUAL AND ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT

In Perry’s scheme, positions one and two represent a view of the world of knowledge as dualistic. Dualistic students view the world as black-or-white, right-or-wrong (Evans 2000:134). These students believe there are right answers to all questions and that some authority, for example, a teacher, a textbook or a parent, knows the right answer. They see themselves as passive learners or receptacles ready to receive truth and they have difficulty managing conflicting points of view (McGovern and Valiga (1997:29-30).

Positions three and four represent a multiplistic view of knowledge. Initially at position three, multiplistic students accept that there is uncertainty in the world, but believe that this uncertainty is only temporary until some authority finds the answer. Once students have progressed to position four, they accept that legitimate uncertainty and multiple viewpoints exist. However, they believe that one opinion is just as valid as the next one and find it difficult to judge the soundness of an opinion or point of view (McGovern and Valiga 1997:29-30).

Knowledge is recognised as relative at positions five and six. Relativistic students no longer expect or accept a universal truth and realise that individuals need to make their own choices and decisions based on their own values, experiences and perceptions of truth. This latter situation requires a major shift in the manner in which students think regarding their view of themselves as learners, the role of teachers and other authorities such as books and parents. A prerequisite for engaging in critical thinking and moral reasoning is the achievement of a position five, level of thinking. Therefore, students must display a dramatic shift to intellectual independence evidenced by the manner in which they accept responsibility for their own learning (McGovern & Valiga 1997:29-30).

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Positions seven, eight and nine represent a view of knowledge as commitment. During progression to positions seven, eight and nine, students gradually accept responsibility within the pluralistic world and act through commitment to establish their personal identities. At the commitment positions, students acknowledge that they have diverse, conflicting personal issues and these force them to make choices related to their careers, relationships with peers and significant others and value systems (McGovern & Valiga 1997:29-30).

McGovern and Valiga (1997:31, 34) investigated the effects of planned developmental instruction strategies on cognitive growth of freshman nursing students. They found that developmental instruction influenced the cognitive development of students by promoting critical thinking, empowering students to take responsibility for their own learning and assisting teachers to consider their own prejudices and world perspectives during their responses to student comments and whilst giving feedback. Developmental instruction strategies may be formulated within existing course contexts, that is, course content and course work requirements such as assignments. Examples of developmental strategies are writing, debating, group discussions, group projects, creative projects such as audiovisual presentations, short stories, poems, collages and pieces of music or art which are presented to peer groups (McGovern & Valiga 1997:29-32).

With regard to group work and group discussions, Brysiewicz, Cassimjee and McInerney (2002:15-18) reported that these methods had advantages and disadvantages. Students reported irritating aspects of group work such as domination, laughing at mistakes, disruptive behaviour and non-participation. Some of the things most appreciated about group work were teamwork, improved learning, opportunity to clarify issues and respect. Amongst the aspects students expected from the group were participation, meeting group goals and aims, cooperation, sharing information, communication and responsibility. Some of the aspects students were willing to do for the group were to access and share information, participate actively, cooperate, prepare for group work, help and encourage others, follow group rules and listen to others (Brysiewicz et al 2002:15-18).

Regarding writing being used as a developmental strategy, Beeson (1996:259) found that essay writing assisted students to synthesise factual knowledge. Additionally, writing assists learning by allowing reviewing, re-evaluation and manipulation of ideas and active

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participation allows the learner to delve deeper, obtain more meaning and thus a better understanding of what is being learned (Beeson 1996:259). Sonnier (1989:168-170) states that using writing as a teaching method has many advantages such as reinforcing learning, promoting group understanding, assisting students to learn about themselves, making learning fun, raising self-esteem and keeping a journal.

The Developmental Instruction Model (see figure 2.3) consists of the concepts challenge and

support. Support is offered for the present level of cognitive development and affirmation for

what has already been achieved and cognitive growth is challenged by offering alternative explanations and contexts. Cognitive change is accomplished through the interaction of learners with increasingly complex environments (McGovern and Valiga 1997:29-31). Four variables are used to describe the challenge and support concepts. The variables are the amount of structure in the learning environment, the degree of personalism exhibited by the teacher, the degree of diversity allowed or encouraged in class and course work and the type of learning experiences. Diversity refers to the number of alternatives or perspectives that are encouraged or presented during a learning experience to enable a student to attain learning outcomes. Types of learning experiences refer to the extent to which students are directly involved in learning activities, for example, peer evaluations by critiquing work of other students. Structure refers to the amount of direction provided to students. Personalism refers to ways in which the teacher and the learning environment communicate openness, mutual trust and respect and a willingness to take risks in the process of learning. In other words, personalism pertains to a psychological, educational environment that is conducive to learning. The variables diversity and vicarious learning provide challenge and support is provided by the variables, a high degree of structure and a highly personal atmosphere. Each of the four variables of the model exists on a continuum. (see figure 2.3). The teacher promotes cognitive growth by providing an appropriate balance between the concepts; challenge and support (McGovern and Valiga 1997:31-33).

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Variable

(Challenge) (Support) DEGREE OF DIVERSITY

Extensive --- Minimal

TYPE OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES

Vicarious --- Direct

AMOUNT OF STRUCTURE

Minimal --- Extensive

DEGREE OF PERSONALISM

Moderate --- Extensive

(McGovern & Valiga 1997:32)

FIGURE 2.3: DEVELOPMENTAL INSTRUCTION MODEL

2.5.2.2.2 Directive learning

This category deals with rules and guidelines, the “DO’s” and the “DON’Ts” of tasks. Directive learning follows item learning or can be learned concurrently (Bevis & Krulik 1991:366; Bevis & Watson 1989:93; see appendix G). An example of directive learning is the rules regarding how to prevent hypothermia while bathing the baby.

Directive learning is also reminiscent of the work by Marton and Svensson (1982) and Marton and Saljo (1984), which is described in a study undertaken by Leino-Kilpi (1989:62). The reader is referred to section 2.5.2.2:1.

Directive learning is also reminiscent of Ausubel’s reception or expository learning (Bowen 2004:1; Ouellette 1986:16; Thompson 1999:1-3; Woolfolk 1995:319). Reception learning involves the concept advance organizer and the way it is influenced by prior learning. An advanced organizer is a mental construct of learning already attained that assists a learner to master new information by preparing the existing cognitive structures of the learner for the learning experience that is about to occur. During reception learning a student acquires knowledge primarily through being presented with and receiving concepts, principles, facts and ideas (Ouellette 1986:16; Woolfolk 1995:319).

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Expository means explaining or setting forth of facts and ideas. During expository teaching, for example, during a lecture the teacher presents material in a complete, carefully organised, sequenced and finished form to the student (Gravett 1994:1-2). The student thus receives the most usable material in the “most efficient way“(Ausubel, Norvak & Hanesian 1978:120).

2.5.2.2.3 Rationale learning

Rationale learning uses theory to support nursing practice. This category of learning deals with the whys, the reasons or rationales of nursing (see appendix G). For example, why is a nursing intervention such as pressure care implemented in a specific manner?

Rationale learning is concerned with learning the underlying theories and rationales; when they apply and their use in practice. It involves arranging items and directives in some logical order and finding theories on which to base nursing practice. It allows the rational use of formal properties of activities and theories and enables an individual, to relate data and ideas and to plan interventions and skills. Rationale learning exerts an influence on judgement and decision-making and enables learners to apply research to practice. It permits grounding practice in realities that are classical and fit known patterns. Rationale learning facilitates the structuring of nursing work and knowledge in a manner consistent with common or expected consequences of nursing care or intervention. For example, basing nursing practice and nursing interventions on the Orem self-care model of nursing (Bevis & Watson 1989:93; Fawcett 1984:175-200; Fitzpatrick & Whall 1983:137-153).

2.5.2.2.4 Contextual learning

This category forms the cultural framework in which the discipline of nursing and its practice exists (Bevis & Krulik 1991:368). It is the essence of nursing and deals with socialising aspects, nursing literature, world perspectives as a nurse, political expertise and aesthetics (Bevis & Watson 1989:93). It is the aspect of nursing that helps an individual become a person who thinks and feels like a nurse. Contextual learning is the language of nursing and its symbolism, values, ethics and general philosophy (Bevis & Krulik 1991:368; see appendix G). It entails learning to view nursing as a human science to ensure that transactions and interactions with patients and colleagues are caring, compassionate and positive (Bevis & Watson 1989:93). Nursing as a human science focuses on the human response to illness and

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the personal meaning it has for the patient (Barker 1998(a):53). In contrast, nursing as a natural science focuses on disease and pathology; the biomedical model (Morolong & Chabeli 2005:45; Pearson 1998:256-257).

For example, from a natural science perspective, during interactions nurses focus on finding out about the patients, learning to understand and know them, gathering data, identifying the problem, that is, increasing emphasis is placed on the nursing diagnosis and nursing care plans (Morolong & Chabeli 2005:41). In comparison, humanistic nursing focuses on affording the patients the opportunity to find out about and understand themselves (Pearson 1998:257). Patients identify their problems, thus decreasing the emphasis on the nursing diagnosis and nursing care plans and consequently, increasing emphasis on self-awareness and plans of the patients (Pearson 1998:257).

2.5.2.2.5 Syntactical learning

Prior to discussing syntactical learning, it is necessary to clarify the term holism. The term holism is a combination of hol- or holo- meaning complete, entire, without division or whole and ism, suggesting an ideology of wholes. The term holism was initially, formally used during 1926 by Jan C. Smuts, a South African politician and statesman. In its most simplistic sense, it is a philosophy that states that nature or the universe is viewed in terms of wholes that are irreducible to parts and are more than the sum of their parts (Kim 1999:89).

Syntactical learning deals with the logical structure of building and connecting ideas and data into meaningful wholes (Chabeli & Müller 2004:44), broad relationships, insights, patterns between elements and intuition. During syntactical learning, the student delves deeper into learning and finds or seeks meaning and understanding (Bevis & Watson 1989:93-94, 294; Quinn 2000:35; see appendix G). It is the welding together of theory and practice into praxis. Praxis is defined as enabling theory and practice to inform and shape each other and as the precise symbiosis between reflective action and critical theorising (Bevis & Watson 1989:56, 223, 236; Ford & Profetto-McGrath 1994:342; Galbraith 1992:11).

Syntactical learning is reminiscent of the work by Marton and Svensson (1982) and Marton and Saljo (1984) as cited in Leino-Kilpi (1989:62). These authors also describe a wholistic or deep approach to learning (Masitsa 2006:489). During the wholistic or deep approach to

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learning the student concentrates on wholes, (see appendix G) where she actively and personally attempts to create an integral whole organised around a central theme. An integral whole is formed by organising the relations between the parts of the whole and by utilising details to clarify and support the main theme. During this process deep learning occurs (Hattie & Watkins 1988:345; Leino-Kilpi 1989:62-63; Quinn 2000:35). For example, when a student learns about holistic patient care (the whole), she makes a detailed study of the physical, psychological, social and spiritual dimensions (parts) of patient care by organizing and integrating each dimension into the whole (holistic patient care). Thus, the holistic nursing philosophy enables the nurse to deliver comprehensive nursing care by focussing on all aspects of patient care (Kim 1999:87).

In Scotland, Sutherland (1999:381-389), in a study regarding the learning of mature adult students, found that learners adopted the deep approach to learning.

2.5.2.2.6 Inquiry learning

This category is the creative aspect of nursing. Inquiry learning is where themes are generated and ideas, dreams and visions are developed (Bevis & Watson 1989:94). The learners strategise, identify, clarify and categorise problems and approaches to solving these problems (Bevis & Krulik 1991:368).

Inquiry learning is reminiscent of Bruner’s discovery learning (Woolfolk 1995:317-319). Discovery learning implies that the teacher should provide intriguing questions, (see appendix G) baffling situations or interesting problems that stimulate the students to actively discover the structure of the subject matter for themselves (Quinn 2000:98). Structure refers to the fundamental framework of ideas, relationships or patterns of the subject.

To solve problems the student uses intuitive- and analytical thinking. Intuitive thinking may be defined as imaginative leaps to correct perceptions or workable solutions. Bruner (in Woolfolk 1995:317-319) suggests that teachers can nurture this type of thinking by encouraging students to make guesses based on incomplete evidence and then confirm or disprove the guesses systematically through research. When, for example, a nurse tutor wants a student to learn about raised intracranial pressure; she may ask the student to guess the dangers. Thereafter, the student may, through systematic research, that is, reading about and

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discussing the subject with others or doing a case study on a patient with raised intracranial pressure, substantiate the answer. Thus, instead of explaining how to solve a problem, and to actually solve the problem for the student, the teacher provides the means to solve the problem, by providing appropriate material resources or encouraging the student to make observations, form hypotheses (educated guesses), and to test if the answers are correct. Unfortunately, educational practices often discourage intuitive thinking by punishing incorrect guesses and rewarding safe, but uncreative answers.

In support of the previous statement, Hattie and Watkins (1988:346) state that a deep level approach to learning has been shown to be necessary to achieve higher level learning outcomes such as critical thinking and independence of thought. However, independence of thought is often not rewarded by academic grades, especially not in a behaviouristic orientated approach.

Concepts, such as investigating, theorising, researching, idea generating, questioning, intuitive leaps and analysing, mentioned in Bruner’s discovery learning are also contained in the Bevis and Watson conceptual continuum: Typology of Learning (Bruner in Woolfolk 1987:275-276; see appendix G).

Regarding analytical thinking, Jacobs, Ott, Sullivan, Ulrich and Short (1997:20) used a literature review, extensive discussion, student participation and evaluation to formulate a