Chickering and Reisser (1993) portrayed the seven vectors as a map. This analogy depicts the vectors as guides to determining where students are developmentally and where they are heading as well. In one sense, developing competence is the first chart point on that journey. Chickering and Reisser describe this vector using another visual method. In this example,
developing competence is featured as a “three-tined pitchfork” (p. 53). The tines of the pitchfork represent: intellectual competence, physical and manual skills, and interpersonal competence. The handle of the pitchfork would be a larger sense of one’s own competence which is derived from an underlying feeling of self-confidence. In this model for understanding competence, Chickering and Reisser illustrate that all of the parts are interrelated, and this affects how an individual comprehends and esteems their own skills and abilities. In terms of research related to WIL programs involving bachelor’s degree programs and beyond, intellectual and interpersonal competence have been examined by several studies. However, physical skill development
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through WIL experiences has not been widely examined by scholars. Presumably, this deficiency is due to WIL programs’ predominant focus on developing intellectual and interpersonal skills as opposed to manual dexterity. For this reason, the following sections focus on research
examining intellectual and interpersonal competence specifically. Intellectual Competence
As Chickering and Reisser (1993) assert, intellectual competence is a central focus of higher education, but what exactly does that look like? From their research, they have identified three overarching outcomes that signify growth in intellectual competence:
(1) acquisition of subject matter knowledge and academic (usually verbal and
quantitative) skills tied directly to specific academic programs, and (2) gains in cultural, aesthetic, and intellectual sophistication, and expanding interests and activities in humanities and performing arts, philosophy, and history, and (3) the development of general intellectual or cognitive skills, which can be applied regardless of content areas. (Chickering & Reisser, 1993, p. 55)
In light of Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) proposed markers for achieving intellectual competence, WIL programs seem to offer an effective outlet for facilitating growth and learning in these three areas. On the first point, the researchers specifically underscore the need for advancement in students’ academic and subject matter knowledge. Cooper, Orrell, and Bowden (2010) describe the learning environment of cooperative education (co-op) experiences as alternating between the classroom and the workplace. This type of approach has been shown to provide an integration of theory and practice which affords a deeper level of understanding for the student (Cooper, et. al., 2010). The WIL, or specifically the co-op, model of learning facilitates the furtherance of academic understanding through a functional application of those
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theories and principles. Cooper, et al. (2010) illustrate this process of understanding as “spiral learning,” which they essentially equate to the concept of the experiential learning cycle as demonstrated in Kolb’s (1984) research. Cates and LeMaster (2004) were able to document targeted student learning that took place for co-op students participating in the University of Cincinnati’s Professional Practice program. Their work showed the value in carefully designing instruction, project work, and assessment for work integrated learning programs. This study affirmed that the employment of a targeted co-op program can enhance classroom learning through practical application.
The second indicator of intellectual competence as illustrated by Chickering and Reisser (1993), concerned gains in cultural and intellectual sophistication and an expansion in interests and activities. The authors related this to a desire for lifelong learning. Cooper, et al. (2010) proposed that lifelong learning can be an outcome of student participation in WIL experiences. Jackson’s (2013) study of employability and outcomes for WIL participants confirmed some growth for students in the area of self-awareness, including lifelong learning. Her study also indicated a measure of growth in WIL participants’ awareness of social responsibility and accountability. However, Jackson (2013) was quick to point out the limited nature of the findings on the increases in these areas and the need for additional studies in order to better understand the effect of WIL programs on the interest of lifelong learning for participants. The third indicator of intellectual competence was highlighted as the development of general intellectual or cognitive skills (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). Chickering and Reisser demonstrated that growth in this area was related to development of communication skills, reasoning ability, and critical thinking. Students moving through this vector would gain greater intellectual flexibility through reflection. The results of progress through this intellectual
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flexibility would allow for better understanding of complex issues. Chickering and Reisser illustrated this growth as students acquiring the ability to identify a problem, integrate information, and create hypotheses and/or answers to those problems.
Many of these cognitive skills can be difficult to measure or assess. Higgs (2014) addressed the opportunity provided by WIL experience to provide growth in many of these “intangible” measures of professional practice related to cognitive ability. She also
acknowledged the difficulty in measuring growth in this type of intellectual competency. Some scholars (Little & Harvey, 2006; Lucas & Tan, 2014) have conducted studies in which the findings call into question the assumption that WIL experiences provide students with
intellectual and cognitive growth. For example, Lucas and Tan’s work examined how students’ ways of knowing (cognitive, intrapersonal and interpersonal aspects) were developed during a WIL experience. The researchers conducted interviews with seventeen business and accounting students from a university in the United Kingdom. The study participants showed indications of interpersonal development through their relationships and interactions with others during their WIL placement. The students also experienced intrapersonal gains through a changed sense of self. Little and Tan’s findings did not indicate advances in cognitive growth for the study participants. The researchers speculated that this lack of cognitive growth might be due to several factors, but particularly highlighted the observation that the students appeared to focus more on the nature of professional participation as opposed to the nature of professional practice. Notably, this study has some limited application, but it does offer evidence for questioning assumptions about WIL experiences. These contradicting views of WIL programs as a means of nurturing cognitive development seems to highlight an area in need of further exploration.
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Chickering and Reisser (1993) identified interpersonal competence as one of the crucial elements of the first vector. In fact, they underscore the essential role that interpersonal skills play in personal and professional success (p.77). This set of “discrete” skills includes concepts like: persuasion, negotiation, communication, expression, empathy, and behavior analysis (self and others). Chickering and Reisser noted that this set of abilities is transferrable between public, private, or professional settings. They cited the research of G. O. Klemp (1977) in exhibiting the importance of interpersonal competencies on job success. Klemp’s research observed individuals that had been successful in their career and the findings indicated that communication and accurate empathy were key commonalities among the study participants. Chickering and Reisser asserted that these skills are crucial in order for individuals to establish healthy interpersonal relationships.
Walther, Kellam, Sochacka, and Radcliffe (2011) investigated the effects of WIL experiences for engineering students, and their results showed significant findings related to interpersonal competencies. Walther et al. conducted focus groups with sixty-seven engineering students from four different countries. Each participant had taken part in some form of WIL experience (co-op, internship, service learning, etc.) during their enrollment in college while pursuing an engineering degree. For triangulation purposes, the researchers analyzed reflection journals submitted by engineering students during their WIL work term. Walther et al.’s analysis of the data revealed compelling similarities to the specific set of interpersonal competencies identified by Chickering and Reisser (1993). For example, communication was cited by participants of Walther et al.’s study as a benefit of the WIL experience. Empathy was one of the themes which the engineering students identified as an important factor which they had developed. The participants felt that this enhanced their ability to listen and communicate. This
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theme once again aligned with Chickering and Reisser’s work. Additionally, Walther et al.’s findings revealed that the engineering students identified and appreciated their enhanced ability to work under pressure as a result of their WIL experience. This theme also paralleled a specific interpersonal competency that was described in Chickering and Reisser’s research as well.
Raelin, Bailey, Hamann, Pendleton, Raelin, Reisberg, and Whitman (2011) also
conducted a study which examined student development through participation in WIL programs. In particular, Raelin et al. investigated perceived changes in student self-efficacy as part of their completion of a co-op work experience. The researchers examined the effects of the co-op experience in relation to three areas of self-efficacy: work, career, and academic. The authors posited that growth in this context would signify the confidence that the participants have in their own success in the workplace, in their career, and in the classroom as well. Engineering students from four universities were asked to participate in the research project. Participants were
administered a “pre” and “post” survey. The pre-survey (1637 participants) was gathered prior to the students’ co-op experience, and the post-survey (886 participants) was completed a year later. Review of this study revealed some concerns due to the lack of inclusion of non-WIL students as a comparison group. However, the findings provided some considerable support for the position that co-op experiences promote change in self-efficacy. In particular, Raelin et al.’s results seemed to offer evidence of notable change in work self-efficacy for students during their co-op work term. According to the researchers, growth in work self-efficacy included traits such as expressing sensitivity, handling pressure, and an overall demonstration of effective social behaviors in the workplace. Once again, these themes reflected characteristics which are also discussed by Chickering and Reisser (1993).
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Reddan (2016) also conducted research related to the effects of WIL on students’ perceived changes in work self-efficacy. Reddan used a similar methodology as that employed by Raelin et al. (2011). However, Reddan’s study focused specifically on the change in work self-efficacy for exercise science students that completed a WIL experience. This investigation also incorporated “pre” and “post” tests related to work self-efficacy. Sixteen participants took part in the study. While Reddan’s work was narrowly focused on students from only one academic program, the results seemed to support the previous findings of Raelin et al. This, once again, indicated that WIL experiences appear to provide growth in attributes related to work self-efficacy and interpersonal competencies.
Bowen’s (2016b) study examined WIL students’ narratives on their journey to become professionals. The lens of social identity theory was employed by Bowen in this project in order to frame how students navigate the professional socialization process. According to this theory, individuals will adopt particular attitudes, beliefs, or values in order to be seen as a member of a particular social group. In this case, the social group would encompass roles in the professional sphere. Participants in this study consisted of twelve students from a communications degree program, five students from a wellness marketing program, and one engineering student. The communications students were from Canada and the remaining students were from Sweden. Each subject had completed an internship in their respective disciplines. Participants took part in an interview and they were also asked to draw a rich picture of all of the resources that they used to learn about professionalism. The rich picture aspect of the methodology was incorporated in order to perhaps relay part of the student’s experience that they could not communicate
effectively in verbal form. Though the sample size is a bit limited for wider transferability, the study does offer some interesting insights. Bowen noted that several students had trouble
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defining professionalism. It caused several participants to stop and take note of their experiences. It seemed that those students used their observations and analysis of other
professionals as a guide for acceptable social norms in the workplace. Once again, the ability to not only analyze one’s own behavior and that of others, but to also demonstrate effective social behaviors connected with important aspects of interpersonal competence as highlighted by Chickering and Reisser (1993). Bowen’s work supported the assertion that WIL experiences allow students to observe the social norms and behaviors of the professional environment. These work placements provided students with the opportunity to experiment with learned behaviors as emerging professionals prior to graduation from college.
Examination of the research on WIL programs outcomes as related to Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) first vector of Developing Competence, indicated significant evidence for gains in competence. Aspects of intellectual and interpersonal competence appeared to be enhanced by participation in WIL experiences. However, there are some instances of contradiction in the literature related to WIL outcomes and intellectual competence, which would imply the need for further study on this subject. The following section examines the relevant literature regarding WIL developmental outcomes pertaining to the second vector of Managing Emotions.