The third of Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) developmental vectors involved students moving through autonomy toward interdependence. According to the authors, separation and individuation are crucial in the development of identity. Separation involves a physical
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sufficient and taking responsibility for their own decisions and direction. Beyond that, autonomy is described as a “mastery of oneself and one’s powers” (p.118). In practice, autonomy would be achieved as the student no longer needs to look for an external authority to rescue them from situations, but would instead become able to rely on their own abilities to address challenges. Progress in this area would also require some advancement in the vector of managing emotions as well (p.118).
Chickering and Reisser (1993, p.117) identified three components involved in moving through autonomy toward interdependence: “(1) emotional independence – freedom from
continual and pressing needs for reassurance, affection, or approval from others; (2) instrumental independence – the ability to carry on activities and solve problems in a self-directed manner, and the freedom and confidence to be mobile in order to pursue opportunity or adventure; (3) interdependence – an awareness of one’s place in the commitment to the welfare of the larger community.”
Emotional independence starts with a distancing from one’s parents and moving into a transition of relying on other authorities, advisors, and peers for support. Chickering and Reisser (1993) described this period of transition for a freshman as akin to a “hog on ice.” The image conjures a period on unfamiliarity and awkwardness as students attempt to find proper footing in their new and strange environment as they are untethered from their parents. Advances in competencies and cognitive skills can bolster a move for the individual toward confidence and self-reliance.
Instrumental independence is shown by Chickering and Reisser (1993, p.132) to have two components: “(1) the ability to carry out activities on one’s own and to be self-sufficient, and (2) the ability to leave one place and function well in another.” The authors pointed out that
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emotional and instrumental independence are linked and mutually facilitating. One of the most essential features of instrumental independence involves the establishment of personal control. Establishing this sense of agency comes from a reduced reliance on parents, and an emerging sense of maturity through the ability of the individual to make decisions and become self-reliant.
Interdependence is the capstone of autonomy (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). Individuals moving toward interdependence have established the sense of agency related to independence, but now begin to appreciate the value of compromise, respect, sacrifice, and consensus that can be achieved through interdependence. In moving toward interdependence individuals have an awareness of their own abilities, but also gain the courage to ask for assistance when it is needed. Development in this vector leads to a healthy balance between autonomy and interdependence. Chickering and Reisser (1993) pointed out that students who are willing to take part in co- curricular activities, which would include WIL programs, have ready-made laboratories for learning about interdependence.
Several early studies touched upon the link between students developing a greater sense of autonomy through their participations in a WIL program. Wilson and Lyons’ (1961) seminal book provided some of the first in-depth research from one of the initial comprehensive studies of cooperative education programs. This ground-breaking research project was the result of an extensive effort by institutions and individuals with an interest in better understanding the outcomes and potential for cooperative education programs. The study consisted of
collaboration with faculty, administration, and private industry leaders as well. The project incorporated twenty-two schools that offered cooperative education programs and 16 schools that did not. Data was gathered through questionnaires to faculty, administrators, students, co-op employers, and alumni of the participating institutions. According to Collins (1973), this study
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provided a set of acknowledged gains by students participating in cooperative education programs. In particular, co-op students garnered a greater sense of responsibility for their own efforts, and increased reliance on their own judgement. The participants also appeared to gain greater maturity as well. All these findings pointed towards a growth in autonomy by the students. The research also indicated that co-op students developed increased ability to
understand and relate to other people as a result of their work placement, which also connected to Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) concept of moving through autonomy toward
interdependence.
Wilson and Lyon’s (1961) study pre-dated the work of Chickering and Reisser which requires some effort to directly connect their findings to similarities with the seven
developmental vectors. However, there are two subsequent studies by Brogden (1989) and Mueller (1992) that specifically examined the relationship between WIL programs (co-op) and the development of student autonomy. Brogden’s study was conducted at the College of Mount St. Joseph, a small, liberal arts college. The project drew upon Chickering’s (1969) early work in student development theory and incorporated the use of the Student Development Task Inventory (SDTI-2). This instrument measured development growth in three areas of Chickering’s vectors (developing autonomy, sense of purpose, and mature interpersonal
relationships). The results of Brogden’s work indicated that cooperative education programs did provide students with growth in the areas of autonomy and a sense of purpose. However, caution should be used in extrapolating those findings too broadly due to the limitations of the SDTI-2 which was used. Unfortunately, there are a number of concerns with the use of the instrument, particularly with the reliance on accurate self-reporting by the subjects.
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Mueller (1992) was intrigued by the findings of Brogden’s (1989) research. She took similar elements of Brogden’s work, including the use of the SDTI-2, but she enhanced the methodology with statistical analysis as well. This project was conducted at a public, research university. The population of the experiment consisted of 31 co-op students, 20 of which completed the pre-test and post-test. The test group consisted of students majoring in engineering, business, and liberal arts. The control group was made up of 56 students, 23 of which completed the pre-test and post-test. The findings of the study affirmed similar findings in Brogden’s research that indicate a growth of autonomy for students participating in co-op work placements. Mueller pointed out that her results do not support the assertion of Brogden’s findings that co-op programs also provide participants with a greater sense of purpose. These previous studies contained promising results which seemed to necessitate further research, but unfortunately the following decades did not yield an abundance of research specific to this topic. Thankfully, a select number of studies in recent years have begun to delve further into this subject.
The use of student reflection journals during internship experiences was examined by Bowen (2011) for potential signs of developmental growth for interns in terms of autonomy and professionalism. Bowen employed a small case study methodology for students participating in an internship course during their final year of study at the University of Toronto. There were three students that volunteered to participate by having their reflective journal reviewed for thematic analysis. Bowen reviewed each journal for themes and coded the responses into the following categories: sociability, evaluation, self-acceptance, knowledge transfer, increased (decreased) confidence, professionalism, and maturity. The methodology employed not only aimed to identify themes, but also attempted to identify how well content had been assimilated.
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In terms of the findings, all three participants’ journals revealed relationships between increased confidence, self-evaluation, and professionalism. The writings also highlighted gains for the students in terms of maturity. Bowen found that these documents provided details on learning outcomes as recorded by the students themselves. This information can illustrate not only whether interns have experienced enhanced autonomy and confidence, but also how they have acquired those developmental outcomes through their experience as well.
It is also important to examine related connections to other theoretical models when reviewing the literature of student development theory. Chickering and Reisser’s (1993) writing on the movement through autonomy toward interdependence has significant correlations to the concept of self-authorship as highlighted by Kegan (1994) and Baxter Magolda (2001). Kegan described self-authoring individuals as having the “capacity to take responsibility for and
ownership of their own authority.” Baxter Magolda (2001, 2007) has defined self-authorship as, “the internal capacity to define one’s belief system, identity, and relationships.” This “capacity” illustrated in the concept of self-authorship certainly mirrors the sense of agency or control that is gained in the movement through autonomy toward interdependence, which Chickering and Reisser illustrated in their third developmental vector.
Kegan formulated the concept of self-authorship in his work on the orders of consciousness (1994). His book explored how people organize experiences in a continual restructuring of the relationship between the individual and their environment. Kegan’s
developmental stages consists of five orders. Each order builds upon the others. Kegan’s fourth order sees the individual achieve the capacity to be self-authoring which includes an
understanding of one’s independence and self-regulation. The fifth order of Kegan’s model reveals the self-transforming mind, which is often difficult to achieve. At this level, one
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comprehends a larger systems view including commonalities and interdependence with others. The concept of self-authorship includes three dimensions of development: epistemological, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. Kegan held that individuals who progress through these dimensions obtain the capacity for interdependence which provides one with a sense of respect for other’s perspectives and an ability to engage in genuinely mutual relationships. Once again, these developmental gains related to self-authorship mirror the need for interdependence
underscored by Chickering and Reisser (1993).
Baxter Magolda (2001) built on the idea of self-authorship as highlighted in the work of Kegan (1994). She further examined the concept and implications of self-authorship in the realm of student affairs. Baxter Magolda proposed four phases on the pathway to self-authorship. Phase one of Baxter Magolda’s theory relates to following formulas. In this stage, the individual is still subject to the guidance of external authorities and allows those third parties to define who the individual is. Phase two is the crossroads. In this phase, tension arises in relationships as the individual seeks to assert his or her needs and desires. Ultimately, progression through the crossroads is marked by a clearer sense of direction and increased self-confidence. Phase three involves becoming the author of one’s life (self-authorship). At this level, the individual
establishes his or her own beliefs and has more confidence to stand up to external pressures that challenge those beliefs. The final stage, phase four, relates to an internal foundation which encompasses a “solidified and comprehensive system of belief” (Baxter Magolda, 2001, p.155). Baxter Magolda’s development of the Learning Partnerships Model (LPM) addressed the
conditions that foster self-authorship. These conditions were built upon three assumptions: knowledge is complex and socially constructed, self is central to knowledge construction, and authority and expertise are shared in the mutual construction of knowledge among peers. In light
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of this, WIL programs might hold the potential to be healthy environments for nurturing the growth of autonomy, interdependence, and self-authorship of participating college students. Unfortunately, there has been limited research relating to student development of self-authorship through the challenges that WIL experiences offer (Linn, 2004).
Denise Jackson (2017) did provide one study that specifically examined the relationship between pre-professional identity development of college students as a result of their WIL experiences. In particular, Jackson employed Baxter Magolda’s (1998) concept of self-
authorship as a framework for examining the different stages of development in students. In this qualitative, phenomenological study, Jackson reviewed the reflective writing assignments for 105 business undergraduate students who took part in a semester long WIL placement. The writing assignments were subject to thematic analysis, which revealed interesting findings related to the students’ experience. Several of these themes were highlighted as helping the participants better understand the requirements of their intended profession. Approximately one- third of the students noted the importance of completing tasks autonomously. Apparently, the active engagement of being individually responsible for an assignment at work provided the students with valuable insight into the profession. Also, one-third of the respondents noted to importance of learning from other co-workers and harnessing the power of internal relationships. Additionally, over half of the respondents cited the positive effects of collaboration and
interpersonal relationships with co-workers and customers in better understanding the expectations and standards associated with their profession. This experience bolstered the students’ grasp of the need to align their individual behavior with the overarching company mission. Other positive correlations from the students involved developing greater self- awareness and also obtaining a better appreciation for autonomy and self-directed learning
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through their WIL placement. Jackson noted that these findings seemed to indicate a progression along the self-authorship continuum, though most students appeared to still be at the following stage. There were, however, some instances of participants that showed significant growth toward the crossroads stage also. There are some limitations with this study in regards to the sample consisting only of business majors from the same institution, and the data was gathered from only one method. However, the findings do provide promising results in identifying the perceived growth in autonomy and self-authorship that students experience through WIL programs. The following section explores literature related to the development of mature interpersonal relationships.