6 The impact of direct payment on landlords
6.7 Did the ‘trigger point’ affect the value of arrears and the number of
1 not t all 11k wton inv sti at!
p1eneta; mucb for flea. If'
es:seIlCe oid of principl. At it timst it is an for 1'1 on mathematical principl
and papula.tion, he would ne r
IY coi 3 joi er g ri~ l.y
•
obs that "t fac is t there i only one
prin ipl of t e ndation is in i s
a. tirring of spirt , .•hie no la; and annat ndation is an art".~
textual or!tici yond·th pur ~ numerical relatio of
-produo to order. In 0
Gi1'e this 8itu tio the with re ard to th two b io
"+''2~8 in t t%tual c.ritioi ,0
t ories and t 0 niqu 8
xtual or:!tical ost ou th fint at of p oc.dure - to 0 ta at authorita ivc form or fo •
The pro ss that prec de ndation in t xt criticism .• ref! and ma more chol ly thrOU8ht e introduction o't
the thod advanced
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
other "',ltness '. Lachmann1 m thod owed that if the genae...•••
logical lationship 0 thee l.tnese$ as first' established, it might be fouildtba.t the'se xil witnesses were on t one hand 'cenaed fro a singl.e ourc and therefore oould no'1 r
01 'superiority by he r number, or even, 0 the other
hand,
that they were scended fro the first singl witriess and th t t datio in whiohth rya d ere corruptions.
anusorip arr1es the most uthority. In of th cono
pt Hort
~I that:own %pOsition The basic assumption in this eo apt 1s 'that the oldest
In their prim facie c cter dooUmnts present themselve 0 IIlaX\Y lna pendent
and rival texts of greate~ or 1 ss purity.
Jut as e.matter of fact they are notinde-pendent: by tiW nature o~ the case they are
all fragments, usually ea uland scattered.
tragment3 ~
ot
anal gloal tree of trans'"mission, sOlXlet1 s of t extent and intri-aery. The ore exactly hI to trace the ohief' ramifications of the tree, and to det rm1ne the pl.a.c the sever document amongthe br neheat th more secure will be t toundati n laid
tor
a eri lei capable of distinguishing the original text trom its ceessive corruptions. It laid'down then elIlphatically.... that ALL TRUS ORTHY RES ORA1'!ONOF C OPTED TEXTS IS FOUNDED 0 THE STUDY OF THEm HISTORY, that is. of the lations of descent or attinit,y'which co . neot the everal documents.5
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
man- cript i disco red ma.1nJ.y
tu and comparlsc at t te 3: t ohniqu dependa on th
rinciple t t ide tlty ot»rea IS ilnplie 1Clentity of orig!. •
I cove:r,y0 t
1y is and comparison 0 the 1'e.mng ext of th ir
respect! no tr text
it tu.m \!Gadin oonjunction w th other' s1mila.r texts to reeo., r he text o£ a.ye arlier e tor. cordin to I rt t met od invols three process s:
First t analysis eompari n 01.' t aocu-ntaz:y evid nee f'or a succession of individual.
'Vi ations. next the investigati n
at
the6""4$0<;&-logiCal relations between the doc nta" and.
th rei"ore between their ana tors, by maana of th material first obtained; and thirdly th appllc tion of the nealogice.l tic to the icterpreta:tion of the dooumentaryevidence
£or e ch a.riation.6
t r consideration of t e text oc ~
or
ndatio • The readings thus est -11 d wool torm basis for a.1'.\Y])omH nri ti the~roceaur.
or
us ript, specially con.struct1 g a. nealogioal c rt or
in iblical aehe rahip The oentral principle
ot'
his .ethod.is t t, giv n tl1.nI
•
o of the , sa;y, B occupies an int 1"""
A an C, neWr agree a
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
A and C, or it i the Qascendant of one a.ndt
it oth r The esaene of thi system is, therefore, the earoh for
th
intermediar,y throu~l a'oompari on of all the manwscripts three ~ three.:Butbefore one get to the stage of Corupe-ring th~ manu-oripts :in t es for int rmediari~8, one has i'irst to mak.e co~lete and aocurate oollatio in order to ve 1 all the
. ting variants In doing this t nuscripts will be f'ound to vide r ughly into group oh racterised by
v iant$. t Q ntin aIls a "positive critioal appar tus"
i8 first constructed to oonsist
IDaJlU3C pt to manuscript. cordil'J.g to him; about twenty to pea ases wouldbe euffiei nt to 1II8.ke uch a.cla. si:f'ica.-tion. From th "positive Orl.tical apparatus" eo table shQW~
ted. or this, ea.chma.nusoripti cOJDpal"'ed nth all the ot~rs ber
or
tinies any two givenmanu-. soripts agree in their variant resdin • Certain oupsof' r • from which the c rison of .ma.nU-script
the remot at anc stor ong
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
26
surn ving manuscript in cla ieal scholarship t as set out by Pa.ul as, is some hat if"f'erent. He worked out thod he termed ate atics". which i a process of elimination that lea.ds ack t the arc e'type. this proc ss it is nece sary too.emo trate the dependeooeot ODe document (B) on another ( ) thrO t
ob ct of eliminating from further consideration. The charac-teristios of t errors are first establis d. They a.re eith r
rror aha d 'Y e rta1n manuscript - tconjunctive errors·
or t y are peoulia.r to individual manuscript -' separati rrors' •
I:tt f'orxa.mple, two wit es es , Aand B. showpeeuH.a.r error· in commona.gainst all other witnesses, and addition
aoh one shows a.t least one peculia.r rror ,of its own. then oth derive from a commonexemplar C, from Moh the remining
docu-ents are not deri.ed. It is poss! le to reconstruct Cw re A and B agree, a.nd. where Aor B esi th one of' the other docu•.•
menta. The text of C is d.oubt only here and B do not gree with each other or with one of. the remaining witnesses. One it is possible to reconstruct C, A and B oall ,a£e'J.y ell.mine.t d from further consideration.
ith the fore lng go the ~tions"t t tbe copies ~ade since the prl ary slip in the tradition aoh produc ne exe lar
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
te f'ro his exempl r, i•• make pecUliar rrors •7
~s that it is no ea or even pos ible to establi 'ate c reJ.atio p'
or
th type A, B and C above ~n,for inst shared times between A and B
¢nst C,
ana
sometimes n C and B against A. In thi e e the contaminated witness fails to show the peculiar errors of it exemplar (since they have been corrected f ¬ rt eXhi its the eculi r e rs of exe plars on Mch it <1es not in the main d pend. There is no 8\'1 of eliminating ei th r A:.or B or C, and t ey taUt n on to t next t of examinatio as variants.
Duringt e prooe s of th tio, the critic to find out t e relationship of t e archetype or variant discovered in the proc ss of the reoe i to the original. If the arche-typ is found in the unlikely Y nt to be entirely free of
cor-ruptions, it masy well be the original. But if it prove to
corr subject to e nda.tio.
At a out the s ti that B Maaswas orking out the te for clas ic8.l manuscript, alter Greg as also enga d in d t rmining th relation of the nuscript of an ne;1ish text - the Ch ster Play. In his Calculus of. Variants, where he
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
18: existing rule ot
t
method, textual
en
tici arW. moi aimin convel"ting t
..etho ~ cl"i ti(}i
geM og;tcal tical notation is to make re pr Qi,e and 1e 3 laborious. Bis detec'ti
thod provide £or tb& recording and reaolution
ot
variant, 0888&$ ge al gica,l interences by us O! mathel$1-dueing
t xtuaJ. prabl III ::.to mana. abl proportions, but one ha t
to get
groun ng in mathema•c to use hi ymbolimn.
the 1.s
gliSh
xtual. n of Thoma Ne. "sc 01
VI standard in editorial ethod, 8 oie.lly in th e tabli ant o~ the text". 8 ,. d tho e o£
hi
b1.bliographi ch ol~ first e tablished t e lmportancor
»ibliograp~ a a valuable ~ical teohniqu in t e ucidation and establi en~ ot the text •. This new wq o~ 100 iilg at a t !Jtt. •s }(~" - - ore successful in eMtingexts that ha survived in pr1.nte ve ions. and 0 viate t d ~oradapting tecbniq 8 that
IliaJ1W!Icrip diting in mi •
een estab11 ad with
It is go
raJ.4r
a.a
in textual critici m tliat t28
•
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
of Clas oa.l and Bi li al olara disoussed. above. The e brOUght a.bout ry the bibliogra: hica.l outlook is that whe as
tbel.r tarting point the ubjeet tter of -the
ten
tor th revealing of' evidenceot
scent r pendence of one t Jet on ano r; bi'bllogra_~ vi 1'18' the t xt not primarily as a 1 tra.ry
ompQsition, but in te of theets of paper earing con entional igns, the W in material peculiarities. It 00 i rs the text in te o:r
whi h thes teria.ls are pu to thar,. the relations of th in one ook to tho e of another" and.the subsequent adventures of tb tert through t
o rs "biblio aph\Y may be
from the chanica]. point of
to att textual problems
, u :Lng evid.e-noe hich t deli ratelY avoid bei.ng colour d ~ literary considerati
[ -Ie
J
on.bibl1Qgrap1Uoal textual cl"itici$ID works ith mea,nings and li te:r:-ary value ".9bibliographical met 0 is still in its
r
ti Y ;and more
os
ibilit1e covered for it. It ito note t howeyr, that a. one of t pions rs in the 1'i ld ha stressed, it is not co-ext naive with textual eriticis
and can nly 1e d the ori.tie part ot' the way.10 Like other
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
:n.mcum it can undertak t "tisl nar.ro "ng down of tb number0 witnes3es, thoue;h it· not
"t c d th uoh complexity a coiltrOntditors of manuscript •
ibl 0 raphical f'inding too at limit to the cop 01.' 0 tic' conj cture and po itivel;y . rect the pa. f hi
r of e n ti ill. ThrOughthi , cause of
as:Uy un rs tood and easily correoted. ometimes even hi den corruptions are erreted out.
its imIIlS(lI.1a.teconcern t cove of th a.uthor's text
d copy.11 n thf~re de to disco r t e fom. Q
t
r.
moret~~.5 in a.ddition the sion or the text a.M
the forms of oopie adfor later editions than
l.'h~~semay-b e. diire nt ms.nus ript, a corrected ar!i r d1 on
e one, a ivat transcript, toul pOlis. a
p1"Ompt- oOle, or the like. In rmiidng the manner in whi t rinterCs eopy h be n turned into print, di tine 10 is
en bleh tails at printed xt an be atti'i u to th compoitor hich oannot.
how 11 ori ti howmuoh confideno be po d in the aut ri ty t aD3' parti Ular t
xt.
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
composito engagedi se ting the type, the numberof pres e . used, w t r or not t work s divided amongseveral print r ,
the actual proce s of printing, ~ other factors that
the -exact thod of re ding pr of, the author' involvementin
arrect textual transmission.
HinmantsThe Printin an
~.;;o•••
t...••
.-are••..••is a.ala 10 e ple of the w such investi-ions are conduct d and of the factu evidenc they 'm83 real to aid the ditor in • sing the endence or <list -tive t.ypes - those comingdist ctive through physioal ~ -ries - he demonstrates the or r in
ot the Folio re produc d. The eE!neralbelief had be n t t comIToitors, pecial.:Lywhen or o first editions, cOl!lPosd
ucc s ive pages in t order in h ch we read t m in 'the finished book. Hinmans ev r, that thi w s ot always so and that the Folio 'as et i fomes by first casting-off the copy.12
That this thod of ¢ompos~ could affect ace ey of
t tra.nsmission i shown y t act t t mi ca.lcul tions in pr c ss of east~off often resulted in textual corruption.
This is e vers~ining of the ,oopy
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
32
red with, as in -itua Andronicus ~"v.••••••;;;;;;;;;;_e•••t, r int omi sion
or
so e of th t xt; - s in _ueh Ado, orintbge directions b tween o consecutive 8 eeches
r,
repress t attempts to ecco odate portio
e n ark out for -particul r ge in the form s. Oneeon.•.
eque~lOeof he last type of' oorruption WaS that in later editl.on the editor, failing t rea.1~z.e t the two
re interrupt d by ata. air etlan, unneces i1y mend d one y signing another speaker to the aoond s each.
lfiJ:mlan. al 0 ho that roof-reading is a f tor ect accurat textual tranSllilission. tel' recording
a.l the press correotions made during t printing of lio by J ggard, he :rinds that the proof-reading was" bit
unauthoritati throughout, an W 8 ge rally concerned ra er to 1'e ove ob fect tl'lan to e ure curacy" .14
ost of the e rrections were made ithout refere e to copy) ith the consequ noe that seomingly plausibl ading ~
out to be a corruption. allir no s, 15 such -'..._.._-.;..,,-'.
tio have hak editors' confide in J ggard1S proof'-correotions, and mal\Y l' •3 cor ctions in t
que tio ha.~
rht.t.p by far most rtant factor in the t n sion
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
wi th lfh~ch a copy reprociuc pends lar 1Y on the parti-cular compo tor ho eet it; ence th • portanc a£ identifying the co os1tor responsi 1. Studie of Shakes t8 010
clea.rly reveal tha.t ita. not set by a.single compoito • Alice alker identifies 0 of the compositor , using their oharacteri ticp llings a the main c1 .16 y this
eana s e i hI to 1 am 80 thing of th ener he.bits
ot
the compositors - who accurate and so on, how certain is they re to b
[1<0"'-0), tor instanc , is able to
argue t t the error aha a18 for chapless is not j t cas
ot two 1 tters having been acoident Uy tl'anspo ed.
til-st be ~.(j.-U=d. e tinds t t the terminatio
not -le8 i8 us d inv ri bly throughout th text. e therefore inters that the intention wasnot to t phap1esse, b t t t·
the a I11ng in the copy ei~ probably caple t rmina.•..
tion -lea) t too this tor .•cha.=;;.;;,;;;_ cry In other words, if the spelling i t, e cop had
unli ly to oeo • In enend:llng.
rror 1f
th character! tic palling with t termination -less {and ot
..~.J'
ediatel3 ug st it e:Lf.UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
only ill confirmation.
of type bey used:
identifie the e positora by t cases In his own composito tudy Ffinmanuses mo e precise and
pOlf r.ful evidenoe to identify tive compositors' nda in t
setting ot the Folio, exhibiting their habitual sp lling patt rns
llat rial set throughout from the S8lII!J caSE!
proves in general. to have been set by the amaman, a.nd in a..l\Y event only one
eompo-$itol' at a time can possibly be supposed to have orked on it. But the use ot dif-ferent cases £or the two pages of the same Folio forme almost invariably ea.ns that these cases re used imultaneously by di£-t rent workmen. two-case :formeis prac-tica.lly certain to be two-eo pos!tor torme e.s 11, and as a rul the spelling culian •.
ties in such a formenot only confirm typogra-phical indicationa of two-compositor aettin6 but al 0 tell us at one exactly which two
compositr t se we
.17
wo is ge ral:I.y in:f"erlor an that is spa cially given to this stu<\y Hinman is able to assess how uoh and in just w.hatways each 0& of the oompoitor:s wa.s likely to misrepre-sent the oopy. discoverS,
t
example, that compositor Etsoertain kinda of error like inversio ,transposi tions. singl. -1tte r mi8Sions, c;IoUa..._.:1 errors • spao:mg•. &UU.--~ poan• ting.18
Such evidence as ii provid d by typographical oonaide ••
tio is 80 etimes supported by t study
ot
Vlat r marks inUNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
t pa er used. It is tanee , that in prelimimrie were print d 1a t. The tu
rat this f'act cou"ClusivelybY re al the o~njuga leave
or
a gather! 'Of which thep liminaries tor,m a ~rt.
Ala.n Ste.,eD$Ont8tu~ of the watermark in Shirley' e 2Psortwdt1!S
~so
$ os tha.t dissimila!1" wa;ernarks ih varioU$ copies can a1 the search 'for pres-.00 ot10ns, 8i1108telttual v riants sometime occur- on ¢ontrasting papers.19 He Is 0 1. to draw ueh use u1 ide inferenc s as that th8 book. printed in an ditio 1500 copie. Ineonsi teney
e to identify c eli, inserted de-up cop! and other irregulari tie • oording to Me rr , it t 1'6 is part Of a wat rmark on 'One 1 , and it is not c.ont1nuedon ita corresponding lea.£", <meof'
e leaTea is a oaneel.20
ese investigatio provi a ver.y 'Objective andtactual asia for explaining textual prohlems. Thebi 1.:1. textual.
.1'1
1c
first findS out the sioal andmecbanical facts about ha. s tha.t mabt up the txt. '
th n trie toin the
r lationship betw' ~bes detail and aItr
.quiritlg e 1 tion. But biblio aphy is till at
n such relationships oannot a11'1838 be damo- trat& .
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
36
ooncluaivel,y, and the
cn
tic s to ar in nd the three orders o~ biblio .aphioal en no established by re only that which is onstrable, that Moh stabl:ishes probability and that whioh a ts possibility. 21 This me
that not all bibliogra.phi a1 interpretations of textUal probl s are of equal
ana.
h 0 :ut authority. So e at be t iJit ren-tW. And. it i not alw s true that bibliographical. analy ia can supply the whol olution to textual probl. • Y bi lio-grapl\r can carry the t xtual critio omews:ytoward.$ his goal.H ~ar dependSlargely on the nature of t partiCUlar text.
The probl pre nte the text of nell's poemsis easy to aocount for ut difficult to overcom. It arises ohie~
out
ot
the fa. t that mostot
the poems. were ei th r publiSh d , post umously or cucula ted anoI\Ylllously. The.on
ty arecon-tained in the Miscellaneous Volumeof 1681, whicli inc~udes 1 oemsby bieb he is famou. Obrlousl.Y, bad no infl e oe
a of his duty. reaver, t .s .1681edition exists in t
whatsoever on the process of transition from manucript to printed text and, as I have alread.Y noted,22 Palmer
ana
all o1hers connected with th pu lication re not in a position to exeroise arr:r saluta.ry control on the printer in the
~rtorm-sta.tes, reflecting the not-toa-fayourable oircums~ance3 aurro~
ing the printing.
23
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN LIBRARY
t Y migh have aoMe ad as i led by t autho to co c al their i ntity.
The riod 1660 •.•1679, of" trict
c nsorshipJ d of the ve~ few atiric ve» as rinted,
praetic rground pres ses. 0 t verse o~
thi:s ld a circul4t d surreptitio\l.Sly, being pas ed on for 9Pying from hand to hand, the cop~sts themselves mining
Treason toration
ano~ou •
subjected to heaTYpenalti a "all printing, i ing, prea.ching, r lieious and advised spe~ua~gcalc ated to compas or
vise the struct on, jury, or -str ant of th . sovereign, or to deprive 1m0 ~le, honor, or ~ly
name.24 '!'he Act 0 1 62 for uppressigg dissident ,liter ture gave the Secretar,y 01' Stat. Sir 0 r Lt'strange,
p ers of earch and eizur. manwss notorio s for the singlemindedne 8 and vigour w Moh he ferret d out authors and publishers of seditio lit ra.ture. t ori&:nal.l3'
pplied to printed libels, but ~ 1677 L-Estrange h d reco d .that nuscript material included
that not one in forty libels the Ip of manusc_ripts they
to the press, though ~ 11 nigh as public". Asa.
result on •g politician, Al man Sidney, a e out d in 1683 rely tor posse sing the anuscript ot satire. Under