RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.5 Differing Approaches to Research
In this section, I discuss ethnography, soft systems methodology, case studies
and action research as research approaches that could be exploited in my work-
based research project.
Ethnography
Ethnography is social research method that is a hybrid approach of sociology,
anthropology and education used to collect data in people’s daily lives for an
extended period of time by listening, observing, interviewing a group or
phenomena in a natural setting so as to reconstruct the logic in use (Silverman,
2000).
The theoretical perspective is based on changes in philosophical and sociological
ideas such as symbolic interactionism, phenomenology and hermeneutics. The
embedded epistemology is constructionist in character. It is a product - a specific
type of account (observational) of cultural and social life in which the researcher
is immersed in the social setting for an extended period of time with his main
concern to explain and understand society and the human world and to reveal
social and educational inequality for the purpose of emancipation (critical
ethnology). The studies are flexible and varied: single site, multi-site,
longitudinal, cumulative.
Fieldwork is paramount in ethnographic research design. It guides the researcher
in choosing methods and shaping the use of methods chosen since it is a way of
doing something with alternatives rather than sequenced steps. The basic
(interviews, documents and artefacts) and analysis are the fundamental elements
that shape ethnography by emphasizing a holistic perspective, contextualisation,
and emic and etic perspectives.
The role of the researcher is defined according to the research questions and
setting. The ethnographic approach elicits socio-cultural knowledge from
participants, it studies and addresses regularities in social behaviour and social
structure, in order to bring people and their environments alive.
Saunders et al. (2000) describe ethnography as a qualitative method for studying
and learning about a person or group of people based on the premise that social
reality can’t be understood except through the rules which structure the relations
between members of the group and which make it possible for each to interpret
the actions of others. It studies the social world in its ‘natural’ state by providing
insight and focus into marginal/ trivial aspects of life which may normally be
overlooked by other approaches to research.
It provides an unstructured approach with flexibility of research methods,
avoiding artificial methods such as experiments and survey interview. Reliability
may be enhanced though varied use of methods – e.g. triangulation. As for
validity – the use of ‘one-voice, one-story’ may enhance the validity and
authenticity of findings.
Providing different kinds of data makes it possible for ethnography to project the
phenomena from many different angles. That enables ethnography to provide a
detailed description of society in which participant reactivity is minimal.
The sources of information may be unsolicited and spontaneous. This entails no
relativism since the social worlds are real and objective, like the physical world,
approach concern (1) issues of access, (2) the role of the researcher, (3) ethics,
(4) the practical difficulties of conducting and managing data and (5) theoretical
limitations of the approach.
Soft Systems Methodology
Soft systems methodology aims to make changes in systematic, feasible and
desirable actions. The main feature and the scope of this approach is that the
researcher gain insight into real life situations from discussion of differences
between ideal models of how things work. The starting point of the approach,
similar to other approaches, is to define the problem or issue that needs to be
investigated. Moreover, this approach has an emphasis on analysing the problem
and possible solutions before any action is taken (Checkland, 1981).
Case Study
Case study research focuses on ‘…attempting to document the story of a
naturalistic-experiment-in-action, the routine moves educators and learners make
in a clearly known and readily defined discursive, conceptual and professional
space (the “case”), and the consequences of other people’s actions, foreseen and
otherwise, for learning and for the ongoing conduct of the research project. Case
studies focus on one particular instance of educational experience and attempt to
gain theoretical and professional insights from a full documentation of that
instance.’
Steps in case study research:
• Examine the political, historical, cultural and personal factors that shape
the setting and the case
• Plan data collection and determine the level of analysis that will be
• Collect and store data systematically
• Analyze data so as to (a) compare and contrast interpretations, develop
unforeseen findings and interpretations, and explore anomalous or
disconfirming findings
• Report in a way that has been reviewed by participants and is coherent to
potential readers
The case study can be used:
• To explore a question, program, population, issue or concern in order to
determine appropriate research questions
• To completely describe a phenomenon in its own context
• To conduct and disseminate research to impact on practice
• To refine theorization on practice
(Yin, 1994).
Regarding the above information on the case study approach, the practitioner
researcher could attempt to use this approach if she/he is considering a single
situation, and needs to gain a rich understanding of the context of the research.
The researcher needs to consider “why, what and how” questions during the
process to find out proper answers. The case study approach is a worthwhile way
of exploring an existing theory in a single context.
Moreover, a well-constructed case study can examine the challenge of existing
theory and provide a model as a new source of hypotheses. Using multiple case
studies in the research increases the credibility and likelihood of worthwhile
conclusions. Case studies may include questionnaires, interviews, observations,
alternative research approach for my research project since I will be able to deal
with a single case by being close to context, subject, and ethical considerations.
Action Research
Cohen et al. (2000) explain action research through the combination of the terms
“action” and “research”, highlighting the essential features of the method as
trying out ideas in practice as a means of increasing knowledge about practices
and contexts of practice.
According to Cohen et al. (2000), the approach has a three-step spiral process:
(1) planning which involves reconnaissance, (2) taking actions and (3) fact-
finding about the results of the action. It is a process through which practitioners
study their own practice to solve their personal practical problems. It is a self-
reflective inquiry by participants, undertaken in order to improve understanding
of practice in context with a view to maximizing social justice. The main features
of action research are listed below and characterise the qualitative research
aspect, the inductive process and the involvement of the worker in the practice
for change:
• self-reflective, self-critical and critical, based on understanding and/or
improving curriculum, teaching, and learning. It leads to professional
self-improvement.
• initiated, designed and conducted by practitioners.
• collaborative: it is considered as a ‘group activity’ not an individualistic
activity, that’s why everyone’s view is taken as a contribution to
understanding the situation.
Action research has two dimensions. There is emphasis on the researcher as a
their practice (reflection). Them, there is an emphasis on the researcher as a
collaborator, actively seeking the validation of their practice and knowledge
(reflexivity).
Action research involves the following phases:
• selecting the focus of the inquiry and studying the available literature
• collecting the data from a variety of sources, using forms of ethnographic
and case study techniques
• analyzing, documenting and reviewing the effects of teachers’ and
students’ actions
• developing and implementing interpretive analytic categories
• organizing the data and its interpretation
• taking actions based on short and long-term plans, and
repeating the cycle.
(Mills, 2003)