Language users’ intuitions on similarities
6.4 Pilot experiment
6.4.4 Discussion and evaluation
The data for doen support the hypothesis tested in this study to a great extent, but the findings for laten absolutely do not. How are these results to be interpreted and evaluated? The findings for laten are unexpected and contradictory to previous findings to such an extent that examination for alternative explanations seems to be justified. Two factors specifically attract attention as possible explanation of the patterns found: characteristics of the test instrument, and characteristics of the test subjects.
Test instrument
In Section 6.3.1 it was stated that a prerequisite for valid test items is that daardoor and daardoor fit equally well in the contexts used. We tried to meet this demand by allowing only causal sentences with effected predicates that were neither markedly
‘intentional’ nor ‘non-volitional’. Instead, either predicates denoting mental states or processes were used, or action predicates combined with a non-volitional modifier.
The ambiguity with respect to volitionality of all of the resulting paraphrases was established intersubjectively by three judges.
However, closer (post hoc) scrutiny of the set of paraphrases as a whole suggests that there may be a relation between the solidity of this ambiguity, and the individual score of items. Moreover, there appears to be a relation between the
‘ambiguification’ strategy chosen and the effect of the item in the experiment. The items that contained effect predicates denoting a mental state or a mental process appear to have been least successful. Although in these contexts both daarom and daardoor seem to be perfectly acceptable, there appear to be subtle differences in appropriateness of one connective or the other. These difference can be attributed to
‘degree of controllability’ of the states or processes denoted.
According to findings from research in the field of folk psychology, in human conceptualization mental states or processes differ in terms of controllability (D’Andrade 1987) or even intentionality (Malle 2002). In categorizing mental events in terms of controllability and/or intentionality, the notions ‘intentional thoughts’ and ‘experience’ appear to be of crucial importance (Malle 2002). The first category comprises thoughts that can be evoked intentionally, therefore, are controlled by the ‘thinker’, the second category comprises ‘uncontrollable mental events’ such as perceptual and emotional verbs (notice, understand, recognize, fear (Malle 2002: 71).
The distinction between the categories ‘intentional thoughts’ and
‘experiences’ seems to be reflected in the response patterns of participants in the
experiment. In Table 6.3 and Table 6.4 scores for individual items are repeated and their effected predicates are summed up.
Table 6.3. Controllability of effect denoting predicate: laten items.
Item code Effect denoting predicate Controllable? t (df) p
Laten 1 Inzien - -38.964 (139) <.001
Laten 2 Zien - -19.619 (139) <.001
Laten 3 Beseffen - -15.720 (139) <.001
Laten 4 Staan +/- 7.070 (139) <.001*
Laten 5 Passeren +/- 3.708 (139) <.001*
Table 6.4. Controllability of effect denoting predicate: doen items.
Item code Effect denoting predicate Controllable? t (df) p
Doen 1 Voelen - 6.302 (139) <.001*
Doen 2 Vrezen - 5.146 (139) <.001*
Doen 3 Geloven + -.506 (139) .307
Doen 4 Rennen +/- 2.228 (139) .014*
Doen 5 Toestromen ? -3.515 (139) .001
Items laten 1, 2 and 3 were the three items that contradicted this experiment’s hypothesis. These items were meant to be ‘ambiguous for intentionality’ because of their effect denoting predicates referring to mental states or processes. The
predicates were embedded in the contexts of the following paraphrases16: (7) Tijdens de lezing toonde Greet Bierema ons dia’s van 18e eeuwse
tuinen.
During the lecture showed Greet Bierema us slides of 18th Century gardens
“During the lecture, Greet Bierema showed us slides of 18th C gardens.”
Daardoor/daarom zagen we in hoe de inrichting van tuinen Because of that/that’s why saw we in how the decoration of gardens in de loop der jaren is veranderd.
in the run of the years is changed.
”That’s how/because of that, we saw how the decoration of gardens has changed over the years.”
Het trotse zwembadbestuur gaf een rondleiding in het vernieuwde zwembad.
The proud pool board gave a tour in the renewed
pool.
”The proud swimming pool board gave a tour of the renovated pool.”
16The perception of inzien as ‘uncontrollable’ in the context of (7) may be enhanced by the specific context of the cause-denoting segment. This ‘event’ does not contain any element evoking ‘intentional considerations’. Cf. the other two contexts, where the cause-denoting segments are compatible with such an interpretation.
Daardoor/daarom zagen geïnteresseerden de resultaten van de verbouwing
Because of that/that’s why saw interested people the results of the redecoration.
”Because of that/That’s how the interested parties saw the results of the renovation.”
(8) De boeren protesteerden fel tegen het nieuwe mestbeleid.
The farmers protested vehemently against the new manure policy.
”The farmers protested vehemently against the new manure policy.”
Daarom/daardoor besefte het college dat zij bezorgd zijn over hun toekomst.
That’s why/because of that realized the board that they concerned are about their future.
”That’s why/how the board realized they were concerned about their future.”
All three of the effect denoting predicates are categorized in the classification system of Malle (2002) as ‘experiences’: unintentional mental states and processes.
This classification is in accord with a categorization of the folk model of the mind, in which perception is classified as being ‘uncontrollable’ (D’Andrade 1987: 117)17. Uncontrollable processes are unintentional by nature. So, in this respect the
preference subjects showed to have for daardoor as the ‘best fitting paraphrase’ of the preceding causal sentences is not at all surprising.
A similar line of reasoning holds for the three doen-items with ‘mental’
effected predicates: voelen (doen 1), vrezen (doen 2) and geloven (doen 3). The predicates were embedded in the contexts of the following paraphrases:
(9) De journalisten zijn in groten getale aanwezig.
The journalists are in large number present.
`The journalists are present in large numbers.`
Daarom/daardoor voelt de minister-president zich That’s why/because of that feels the prime minister himself enigszins ongemakkelijk.
somewhat uncomfortable.
`That’s why/because of this (that) the prime minister feels somewhat uncomfortable.`
17 Although inzien and beseffen contain aspects of ‘belief’, mental states that are categorized according to the Folk model of the mind as being ‘usually controllable’, there is a clear link to perception as well: neither inzien nor beseffen seem to be processes that can be consciously evoked by the experiencer. Rather, these seem to denote processes that occur spontaneously and uncontrolled. Note that Malle mentions the closely related concepts of ‘notice’ and
‘understand’ as typical examples of ‘experiences’ (Malle 2002: 71).
(10) De lucht vulde ich met dreigende, donkere wolken en er The air filled itself with threatening, dark clouds and there vielen enkele spetters regen.
fell some splashes of rain.
”The sky filled with threatening, dark clouds and some drops of rain began to fall.”
Daarom/daardoor vreesden de organisatoren van de That’s why/because of that feared the organizors of the festiviteiten in Blokzijl zaterdagavond het ergste.
festivities in Blokzijl Saturday night the worst
”That’s why/Because of that the organizers of the festivities in Blokzijl Saturday night feared for the worst.”
(11) De nationalistische leiders investeren niet in de wederopbouw van The nationalist leaders invest not in the rebuilding of voormalig Joegoslavië.
former Yugoslavia
”The nationalists leaders are not investing in the reconstruction of the former Yugoslavia.”
Daarom/daardoor gelooft het volk dat daar geen That’s why/because of that believes the people that there no kans meer op is.
chance more on is.
”That’s why/because of that, the people don’t believe there’s any chance of it happening.”
Voelen in item doen 1 and vrezen in item doen 2 are clear cases of ‘experiences’
according to the model of Malle (2002). According to folk model of the mind too, feelings are ‘usually not controllable’ (D’Andrade 1987: 117). The effects of these items supported the hypotheses tested. But within the present line of reasoning, it is plausible that their effect cannot be attributed to the fact that the preceding causal sentence was marked by doen. Rather, preferences for daardoor may be caused by the predicates’ inherent unintentionality.
A final interesting observation with respect to the line of argumentation set up here, is the score of item doen 3 in relation to its effected predicate. This is the only item of the ‘mental predicate’ type that shows a trend contradicting this experiment’s hypothesis: subjects showed a slight (though not statistically
significant) preference for daarom as the best fitting paraphrase. This pattern can be accounted for once more with reference to the conceptual understanding of causal processes ‘in the mind’. Geloven is a mental process that is not likely to be
categorized as a clear unintentional ‘experience’, in terms of Malle (2002). Geloven is a case of belief, a mental state that according to D’Anrade (1987) should be viewed as being ‘usually controllable’ (for a more elaborate discussion of the
‘controllability’ of geloven, cf. Verhagen & Kemmer 1997: 75).
No such patterns are found in the items containing an effect-denoting predicate that referred to an intentional act, combined with a modifyer that possibly
(but ambiguously) amends the intentional aspect. Two of the laten items (4 and 5), and two of the doen items (4 and 5) were of this type.
(12) De autodieven konden niet verder toen de benzine op was, The car-thieves could not farther when the gasoline empty was,
”The car-thieves couldn’t go any further once the petrol was gone,”
daardoor/daarom stond het voertuig aan het begin van de Vollenhoofsedijk.
because of that/that’s why stood the vehicle at the start of the Vollenhoofsedijk
”because of that/that’s why the car stood still at the top of the Vollenhoofsedijk.”
(13) De politie constateerde tijdens alcoholcontroles dat enkele fietsers The police determined during alcohol checks that some cyclists teveel gedronken hadden.
too much drank had.
”At an alcohol check-point, the police confirmed that some cyclists had consumed too much alcohol.”
Daarom/daardoor passeerden deze mensen niet zonder That’s why/because of that passed these people not without bekeuring de controlepost.
ticket the check-point
“That’s why/because of that/ For this reason, these people did not leave the checkpoint without a ticket.”
(14) De nieuwsberichten over marsmannetjes waren nogal realistisch, en The news messages about Martians were rather realistic, and
”The news reports about Martians were quite realistic and”
daardoor/daarom renden de mensen in paniek de straat op.
because of that/ that’s why ran the people in panic the street on.
”because of that, people ran into the street in panic.”
(15) Het basketbal was afgelopen zaterdag erg spectaculair.
The basketball was last Saturday very spectacular.
”Last Saturday’s basketball was quite spectacular.”
Daarom/daardoor stroomde het publiek ook deze week That’s why/because of that streamed the audience also this week weer massaal naar de sporthal toe.
again in masses to the gymnasium to.
”That’s why/because of that crowds flocked to the gymnasium this week as well.”