As we have noted, evidence is reliable information that supports an opin- ion. The most common kind of evidence, the kind we will discuss here, is reasons. (Other kinds of evidence are discussed in Chapter Five.) A reason is the basis for thinking or doing something and is commonly signaled by the word “because.” A child may say, “I hit Tommy because he made a face at me.” A parent may say, “I sent my child to a private tutor because she was doing poorly in English.” A prospective car buyer may explain, “I am considering a hybrid model because I do a lot of trav- eling and need an economical vehicle.” In some cases, the word “because”
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No doubt you’ve seen the bumper sticker that expresses this opinion, “Guns don’t kill people; people kill people.”
A New Age author tells his readers: “You are the only thing that is real. Every- thing else is your imagination.”
State and evaluate an opinion you have heard expressed (or expressed yourself) about a current local, national, or international issue.
is implied rather than stated. For example, Tawana may say, “I will never confide in Maria again. I once shared a secret with her and she blabbed it all over campus.” Or a voter may say, “I certainly will not vote for that candidate for president. I don’t like his mustache.”
A moment’s reflection on these few examples will reveal that some reasons are good and others aren’t. Poor grades in English are a good reason for seeking a tutor, improved gas economy is a good reason for buying a car, and past betrayals are a good reason for not trust- ing someone. On the other hand, the fact that someone “made a face” is not a good reason for hitting him, and disliking a mustache is not a good reason to reject a candidate. (Incidentally, the mustache example is not as far-fetched as it sounds. Some historians regard it as a factor in Thomas Dewey’s loss of the presidency to Harry Truman in 1948.)
In some cases a reason will be good but not sufficient to support the thought or action. Suppose that an executive position is open in a company and Martha and Bill are in contention for it. One member of the group who will make the decision says, “I am in favor of giving the position to Martha rather than to Bill because our company doesn’t have enough women in upper management.” The reason for promoting Martha—increasing the number of women in upper management—is certainly good. However, it would be sufficient only if Martha’s qualifi- cations were equal or superior to Bill’s.
Here are some additional examples, together with comments to demonstrate how to evaluate reasons:
Example:“That exam wasn’t fair because it tested us on mate- rial that we were specifically told we weren’t responsible for.”
Comment: The reason, if accurate, is both good and sufficient. Teachers have an obligation to keep their word.
Example:“That story about Britney Spears is probably false. After it appeared in a supermarket tabloid, no other newspaper or broad- cast agency reported it.” Comment:The reason for suspecting that the story is false is both good and sufficient. Supermarket tabloids have a reputation for exaggeration and misstatement. It is there- fore reasonable to be suspicious about their stories, particularly when other news sources do not confirm them.
Example: “Management acted properly in installing surveil- lance cameras in the employee lounge and restrooms because they have a right to identify troublemakers in the firm.” Comment:The reason offered—management’s right to identify troublemakers— might justify installing surveillance cameras in work areas, but not in areas in which employees have the right of privacy. So the reason is neither good nor sufficient.
Evaluating evidence
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Example:“Taking money from my employer’s petty cash fund isn’t really stealing. My employer pays me less money than the person I replaced. He has also given me more responsibilities. And if I didn’t take that money, I wouldn’t be able to pay my bills.” Comment: The reasons offered would support looking for another job but not stealing from the employer. As used here, the reasons are an attempt to justify behavior that is both unethical and criminal.
It is challenging enough to evaluate reasons when they are stated directly, but the challenge is even greater when they are left unstated. Unfortunately, the latter happens fairly often. The person may regard the opinion or action as self-supporting or may believe there is no need to justify it to other people. In addition, people sometimes hide the real reasons for their behavior, even from themselves. For example, a teenager may persuade himself that he smokes cigarettes because he enjoys doing so when the real reason is fear that his peers will laugh at him if he doesn’t smoke.
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In each of the following cases, decide whether the reason offered is both good and sufficient to support the opinion or action.
Your Honor, I believe I was justified in hitting my wife. She kept nag- ging me about getting a job.
I didn’t sign that petition. The person who asked me to sign refused to support my proposal last year.
I oppose government funding for abortions. It requires taxpayers to finance a procedure that many of them believe is a moral outrage.