The following pairs of words are among the most frequently misused. As you read them, note which ones you are unfamiliar with. Re-read those several times until you are sure you understand them.
Amount, number. Use the word amount when referring to things not usually considered as individual units. Use the word number when re- ferring to persons, places, or things usually considered as individual units. Thus, you would speak of an amount of sand, an amount of rain, but a number of people, a number of cars.
The same rule applies using the words less and fewer and the words
much and many. Less refers to a smaller amount (less sand or rain); fewer refers to a smaller number (fewer people or cars). Much refers to
a larger amount (much sand or rain); many refers to a larger number (many people or cars).
Between, among. Use between when two persons, places, or things are involved. Use among when more than two are involved. Thus you would speak of an agreement between Bill and Mary, or one among Bill, Mary, and Sally.
Can, may. Can means able to do something, as in “He can run a four-
minute mile.” May means having permission, as in “May I leave class early today?”
Conscience, conscious. Conscience is a noun meaning “inner moral
guide, sense of right and wrong in ethical matters.” Conscious is an adjective meaning “mentally awake, aware.”
Could have, could of. Could have is standard English. Could’ve is an ac-
ceptable contraction commonly used in speaking but not in writing. Could
of is never correct. This same rule applies to would have and should have.
Each other, one another. Each other is used in references to two people; one another, in references to more than two people. Thus, it would cor-
rect to say “John and Agnes respect each other” and “The members of the chess club enjoyed competing with one another.”
Lay, lie. These words are both verbs. Lay means “to place or put,” and its progression is lay (present tense), laid (past tense), have or had laid (perfect tense). Lie means “to rest or recline,” and its progression is
lie (present tense), lay (past tense), have or had lain (perfect tense). The
confusion between them is explained by the fact that the present tense
Overcoming errors in usage
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of lay and the past tense of lie are identical. It is correct to say “I now
lay [place] the book on the table,” “I laid it there yesterday,” and “I have laid it in the same place every day this week.” It is also correct to
say “I lie down now,” “I lay down yesterday,” “I have lain down for a nap every day after lunch for years.” However, to say “He laid down for a nap” is to use the wrong verb.
Principal, principle. When used as a noun, principal means “the person in charge of a school.” When used as an adjective, it means “main or primary,” as in “The principal reason for attending college is the pur- suit of knowledge.” Principle is always a noun and means “rule,” as in “I am learning the principles of economics.”
Provided, providing. One meaning of provided is “cared for,” as in “My parents provided well for our family.” Another meaning is “with the provision that,” as in “I’ll go provided that Mary does.” Providing means “furnishing,” as in “Sam is responsible for providing refreshments.” Pro-
viding is never an acceptable substitute for provided.
Reason is that, reason is because. The accepted expression is reason is
that. The other expression is redundant because the word reason and
the word because have the same meaning. Thus, you should say “The
reason I volunteered is that it was my turn.”
Set, sit. This pair of verbs is similar to lay, lie (see above). Set means “to place or put” and its principal parts are the same in every tense: “I
set the fork down now,” “I set it down yesterday,” “I have set it down
this way for years.” Sit means “to rest or recline,” and its principal parts are sit, sat, sat: “I sit in this chair,” “I sat here yesterday,” “I have sat here every evening since I bought the chair.” To say someone “set down” in a chair is incorrect.
Through, threw. Through means “between” or “in one side and out the
other.” Threw is the past tense of the verb throw, as in “She threw the ball to her teammate.”
Use, usage. Use may be either a verb or a noun. As a verb it rhymes
with news and means “to employ or put into service.” As a noun it rhymes with noose and means the “employment or application of some- thing,” such as a tool or a math formula. Usage is a very specialized noun and its most common use concerns language, as in “Modern Eng- lish usage frowns on the use of slang in formal writing.” The word
usage is not an acceptable substitute for use—thus it is a mistake to say,
“John’s usage of his celebrity to gain favors is offensive.”
Who, whom. Who and whom are pronouns referring to people. When
the word will be the subject of a verb, choose who. Otherwise, choose
whom. It would be correct to say, “The man who runs the restaurant is
sitting in the next booth” because who is the subject of runs (man is the subject of is sitting). It would also be correct to say, “The man whom I introduced Sally to last night just came in the door” because the verbs
introduced and came in already have subjects. If you were in doubt about
whether to use who or whom, you could say instead, “The man that I introduced Sally to. . . .” As this example implies, the word that is an acceptable substitute for whom. However, the word which should never be used to apply to a person.
Strategy for persuasive speaking
59
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Following are some additional pairs/groups of words that are often confused. Look up each of pair or group in a good dictionary and, on a separate sheet of paper, explain how they differ in meaning and or/ usage.
Accept/except, affect/effect, anyway/any way, awful/awfully, censor/censure/ censer, flaunt/flout, healthy/healthful, imply/infer, like/as, personal/personnel, propose/purpose, real/really, regardless/irregardless, since/sense, stationary/ stationery, than/then, to/too/two.
exercise 16
Strategy for persuasive speaking
In several ways, persuasion is more difficult in spoken than in written communication. Printed words can be studied again and again; spoken words, once uttered, are gone. Also, speaking is usually less formal and precise and therefore more easily misunderstood. Moreover, in spoken presentations the audience sees, as well as hears, the speaker and is therefore more easily distracted.
A speech has the same basic structure as a composition and, in most cases, is organized on paper before being delivered. For this reason, the first three steps in the strategy for persuasive speaking are the same as those for persuasive writing. They are: (1) State what you think about the issue and why you think it; (2) Consider how those who disagree might react to your view; and (3) Arrange your ideas and write a draft of your presentation. (See the earlier section for details.) The remain- ing steps for persuasive speaking are:
Step 4: Create note cards
Why speak from note cards rather than from a completely prepared speech? Because it is almost impossible for an inexperienced speaker to
don’t have the text of the speech in front of you, you can’t succumb to the temptation of reading it.
In creating your note cards, use key words rather than sentences so that you won’t be tempted to read. Write large and limit the number of points per card so that you can move from point to point without lowering your head and squinting. (If you will be using visual aids, such as overhead slides or PowerPoint, be sure to add appropriate cues in your notes.)
Step 5: Rehearse using a tape recorder or a camcorder
Deliver your speech into a tape recorder—or, even better, into a digi- tal camcorder that can be attached to your computer—and then play it back, evaluating and taking notes. Repeat this as many times as nec- essary to achieve the following objectives:
Avoiding distracting verbal mannerisms.Such mannerisms in- clude punctuating every sentence or two with meaningless ex- pressions (e.g., uh, like, and you know) and raising or lowering your voice in the same way at the end of every sentence.
Avoiding distracting physical mannerisms.Such mannerisms in- clude looking at the ceiling or at your notes instead of at your audience, shifting from foot to foot, or using the same gesture over and over. (To evaluate physical mannerisms, of course, you will need to watch your presentation rather than just listen to it.)
Finishing each sentence before starting the next. It is bad enough to hear one speaker interrupt another, but it is even more frustrating to hear a speaker interrupt himself or herself. This hap- pens much more frequently than you might imagine. Fear is a common cause; eager to finish, the speaker tries to say several things at once. The solution is to discipline yourself to give each sentence the attention it deserves.
Speaking loud enough to be heard and separating your words.
The most meaningful material becomes meaningless if the speaker cannot be heard or if he or she runs words together in a way that makes people in the audience turn to one another and ask what was said.
Maintaining a moderate pace. Pace is the speed at which you speak. Most people have a tendency to speak fast when they be- come nervous, so you may have to speak at a pace that seems too slow in order to have it be just right. By practicing, you will be able to develop a sense of what is appropriate
Achieving vocal variety.What bores an audience most? Same- ness, which suggests lifelessness. This effect occurs when the speaker’s volume, pitch, pace, and inflection never change. To
achieve variety, make your voice rise and fall in volume and pitch and deliver key lines a little more deliberately, lingering over the most important words. Where appropriate, pause for dramatic effect and give your audience a chance to process what you have said. These techniques are never artificial when they match the real emotion you feel for your topic.
When you make your actual presentation, stand up straight and maintain eye contact with your audience rather than fixing your gaze at the ceiling, floor, or back wall. (Yes, they can tell the difference.) Don’t stare at any one person, of course; look from person to person. And above all, forget about yourself and focus on your message.