Stimuli to Procedural Memory Consolidation; Evidence from
3.5 Results, 2 nd Experiment
3.6.3 Explicit knowledge
3.6.2 Emotional valence
The absence of any effect of emotional valence of the stimuli on performance in the second session is inconsistent with the second hypothesis of the experiment. It was predicted that participants presented with emotionally arousing stimuli would show higher consolidation in the testing session than participants presented with neutral stimuli. This hypothesis was generated on the basis of previous studies showing that emotionally arousing stimuli enhance declarative memory (McGaugh, 2003, 2004), and, more specifically, on the experiment explained in the last chapter. Javadi, Walsh and Lewis (2011) found that the participants who performed on negative images in a mirror tracing task presented higher offline improvements than participants who performed on more neutral images. The inconsistency between the findings of this and the last experiment discussed in this section might be due to two reasons.
First, it may be proposed that emotionally arousing images do not affect offline improvement of implicit procedural memory, or, at least, on the SRTT task. However, this position is rather implausible in the light of the last experiment and previous research supporting an interaction between the emotional valence of stimuli and declarative memory consolidation.
Secondly, and more plausibly, it may be suggested that the different type of images used in this study might have affected the study’s outcome. The images used in this experiment were drawn from the IAPS and had a high emotionally arousing index, as they represented severely injured people. Many participants referred to the images as “really disgusting”. On the other hand, the pictures used in the previous experiment were not drawn from a standard database and represented ugly masks, which are a more tolerable view than the stimuli of this study.
Consequently, it may be argued that in this experiment participants may have tried to pay attention to the content of the images as little as possible, in order not to be emotionally disturbed or feel repulsion. This might have impaired the effect of emotional arousal on consolidation. A further study may test this suggestion by presenting participants with less macabre images, as those used by last experiment or by injecting them with adrenaline shortly after training.
3.6.3 Explicit knowledge
The absence of any effect of sleep on explicit knowledge disconfirms the third hypothesis of the study, which stated that the sleep group would present higher explicit knowledge than the wake group as a result of sleep‐dependent consolidation. This hypothesis was based on
previous evidence that explicit, offline learning of procedural skill is dependent on sleep (Robertson, 2004; Spencer, et al., 2006), and, more crucially, on a study by Fischer et al.
(2006). They tested participants on a SRTT in which the succession of items followed a set of probabilistic rules, and found that the presence of sleep in the interval between sessions had a considerable impact on accuracy at replicating the grammatically correct positions. The different finding of this study may be due to two different characteristics of the generation task used. First, in the study by Fischer et al. (2006), the sequence was based on a probabilistic grammar, thus participants learnt probability rules and not a precise sequence. Hence it might be argued that only grammar but not sequence learning benefits from sleep. Secondly, in the study of Fischer et al. (2006), participants were given feedback of their performance, after each trial of the generation task. This did not occur in the present experiment but might have helped participants to improve their performance. A further replication of this study might provide feedback to support or disconfirm the influence of this factor.
The results showed that some of the participants acquired explicit knowledge of the sequence after a retention interval of 12 hours. From the current design, it is not evident whether this is due to the retention interval or whether participants had realised the sequence throughout the first session before the retention interval. This could be investigated using another group of participants who were asked to do the generation task right after the first session.
In summary, in this study participants in two separate experiments performed a modified or standard version of the SRTT in which they pressed different keys in response to images which all had either a neutral or arousing emotional valence or in response to spatial location of a cueing circle respectively. Participants were unaware that the order of presentation followed a determined sequence. They were retested after an interval of 12‐hours which did or did not include sleep. All participants improved response times in the second session and showed implicit knowledge of the sequence. There was no difference in explicit knowledge between the wake and sleep groups and no effect of emotional valence. These findings partly contradict previous research, but most differences might be due to the different characteristics of the design of this study. The number of training blocks was much higher than used in previous studies (Robertson, 2007; M. Walker, et al., 2002). The contextual associations and emotional valence of the stimuli were indeed stronger compared to the previous experiment mentioned in previous chapter, and stronger compared to previous research done by other researchers (Spencer, et al., 2006). Moreover, the explicit knowledge
test did not provide feedback and tested sequence, rather than grammar learning (Fischer, et al., 2006).
Further experiments needed to be carried on to (1) Compare the performance of participants with less number of training blocks with the result of current study which actually might answer the question of why participants in the day group experienced a procedural memory consolidation comparable to the night group, (2) Study the effect of different emotional stimuli in an experiment in which the offline procedural memory consolidation of the day and night groups differs.