Stimuli to Procedural Memory Consolidation; Evidence from
3.4 Results, 1 st Experiment
All night condition participants had more than 6 hours of sleep and none in the day condition took a nap. Also, none of the night group participants had negative dreams and reported pleasant sleep. None of the participants consumed alcoholic or caffeinated drinks.
3.4 Results, 1
stExperiment
Performance of the 1st and 2nd session
To make sure participants began the retention interval with comparable acquired skill two ANOVAs were conducted with response time and accuracy as dependant variables and retention type and stimulus type as between subject factors (Table 3‐2). The mean accuracy scores and the mean response times of the last three blocks of the training session were used for each participant. Figure 3‐5 shows mean response time and accuracy of participants at the end of the 1st session across retention and stimulus types.
Table 3‐2. Two separate 2x2 ANOVA conducted to analyse the accuracy and response time of participants at the end of the first session in different groups. The first number in each column is the F value.
Configuration Comparison of performance at the end of the 1st session
Effect Response Time Accuracy
Retention Type, F(1, 44) 0.41, p = 0.522 3.38, p = 0.073 Stimulus Type, F(1, 44) 0.02, p = 0.887 0.19, p = 0.666 Retention x Emotion, F(1, 44) 0.02, p = 0.890 2.56, p = 0.116
Figure 3‐5. Response time, top, and accuracy, bottom, of the participants at the end of the 1st session in different groups. Error bars show 95% confidence interval.
To investigate the amount of memory consolidation in between the two sessions, the mean accuracy scores and the mean response times of the last three blocks of the training session were compared with the mean accuracy scores and the mean response times of the last three blocks of the first phase of the testing session. This provides a test of accuracy and speed across sessions on the blocks testing the ordered sequence, Figure 3‐6.
Two separate mixed model tests were conducted with session number as within subject and retention and stimulus types as between subject factors. Table 3‐3 summarises the results.
Results showed that participants were more accurate and faster in the second session compared to the first session which is evidence of memory consolidation in between the two sessions.
Figure 3‐6. The response time, top, and accuracy, bottom, of participants in different groups comparing the first session with the second session. Error bars show 95% confidence interval.
Table 3‐3. Mixed model test with session number as within subject and retention type and stimulus type as between subject factors. The first number in each column is the F value.
Configuration Comparison between the 1st and the 2nd sessions
Effect Response Time Accuracy
Session Number, F(1, 44) 51.4, p < 0.001 7.87, p = 0.007 Session x Retention Type, F(1, 44) 1.33, p = 0.255 2.74, p = 0.105 Session x Stimulus Type, F(1, 44) 0.49, p = 0.487 1.46, p = 0.232 Session x Retention x Emotion, F(1, 44) 1.66, p = 0.204 0.12, p = 0.723
The mean response time and accuracy in the last three blocks of the first phase was compared with the mean response time and mean accuracy of the last three blocks of the third phase of the testing session. As in the first phase participants were tested on the ordered sequence, whereas in the third phase they were tested on a random sequence (see Figure 3‐7), this comparison tests for implicit knowledge of the sequence. A significant decrease in response time and accuracy in the blocks with a random sequence would indicate that participants implicitly retained the ordered sequence. Two mixed model tests with ordered/random as within subject and retention type and stimulus type as between subject factors were conducted, Table 3‐4.
Figure 3‐7. The mean response time, top, and mean accuracy, bottom, of participants in the random and ordered sequences in the testing session across stimulus and retention type. Error bars show 95% confidence interval.
Table 3‐4. Mixed model test with random/ordered conditions as within subject and retention type and stimulus type as between subject factors. The first number in each column is the F value.
Configuration Comparison between Random and Ordered Conditions
Effect Response Time Accuracy
Ordered/Random Condition, F(1, 31) 97.7, p < 0.001 39.2, p < 0.001 Ordered/Random x Retention Type, F(1, 31) 0.03, p = 0.869 4.26, p = 0.048 Ordered/Random x Stimulus Type, F(1, 31) 0.02, p = 0.875 1.18, p = 0.285 Ordered/Random x Retention x Emotion, F(1, 31) 0.08, p = 0.778 0.06, p = 0.805
The interaction between sequence type and retention type became significant for the accuracy measurement. For further investigation of the effect of retention type on ordered/random condition two independent samples t‐test on mean accuracy data were run (Table 3‐5). A significant difference between day and night groups in the random sequence condition shows that participants in the night group in addition to implicitly learning the sequence also acquired a general skill on SRTT. Figure 3‐8 shows mean accuracy of participants in day and night groups across type of sequence collapsing across the stimulus type.
Table 3‐5. Independent samples t‐test comparing the performance between participants. The first number in each column is the t value.
Configuration Comparison between Day and Night groups
Effect Accuracy
Ordered, t(46) 1.43, p = 0.160
Random, t(46) 2.16, p = 0.036
Figure 3‐8. Comparison of performance of participants on the 2nd session in the day and night groups; * p < 0.05;
Error bars show 95% confidence interval.
Generation Task
Participants were split into two groups according to their generation task scores: participants who acquired explicit knowledge of the sequence – explicit group – and those who did not – implicit group (Table 3‐6). Chi square analysis showed a significant difference between the two groups (day/night) in the negative stimulus type condition, χ2(26) = 5.37, p = 0.053 (two‐
tailed).
Table 3‐6. Percentage of participants acquiring explicit knowledge of the embedded sequence in different retention and stimulus types. The numbers in the parentheses are the number of participants in each group acquiring explicit knowledge over total number of participants in that group.
Condition Emotional Content
Retention Type Neutral Negative
Day 30.76% (4 / 13) 45.45% (5 / 11)
Night 33.33% (3 / 9) 6.66% (1 / 15)
Having split participants into two groups – explicit and implicit groups – the previous analyses were conducted to compare them.
Table 3‐7 summarises two 2x2x2 ANOVAs conducted on response time and accuracy measurements at the end of the first session with knowledge, retention type and stimulus type as between subject analysis. This analysis shows that participants at the end of the 1st session began the retention interval with significantly different acquired skills.
Table 3‐7. Two 2x2x2 ANOVAs with knowledge (Explicit/Implicit), retention and stimulus types as independent factors and response time and accuracy as between subject factors comparing the response time and accuracy of participants at the end of the 1st session.
Configuration Comparison at the end of the 1st sessions
Effect Response Time Accuracy
Knowledge Type, F(1, 40) 14.5, p < 0.001 3.14, p = 0.084
Retention Type, F(1, 40) 1.45, p = 0.235 1.21, p = 0.278
Stimulus Type, F(1, 40) 0.07, p = 0.792 0.10, p = 0.754
Knowledge x Retention, F(1, 40) 0.02, p = 0.873 0.29, p = 0.592 Knowledge x Stimulus, F(1, 40) 0.06, p = 0.811 1.30, p = 0.261 Retention x Stimulus, F(1, 40) 0.03, p = 0.566 0.18, p = 0.671 Knowledge x Retention x Stimulus, F(1, 40) 0.78, p = 0.382 2.76, p = 0.105
Figure 3‐9 shows the progress of participants in the two explicit and implicit groups. As shown in the figure participants with later acquired explicit knowledge about the sequence began the task with significantly shorter response times. Figure 3‐10 shows performance of the participants in the explicit and implicit groups at the end of the 1st session.
Figure 3‐9. Progress of the participants in the two explicit and implicit groups. The double line shows p < 0.05 (uncorrected) and the solid line shows p < 0.01 (uncorrected) using independent samples t‐test analysis comparing the performance in the two groups; Error bars show 95% confidence interval.
Figure 3‐10. Comparison of performance of the participants in the explicit and implicit groups at the end of the 1st session, Error bars show 95% confidence interval.
The results of this experiment did not support the hypotheses about memory consolidation enhancement either due to negative emotional content of the stimuli nor due to sleep. The results showed that the response time and accuracy of the participant on the second session in all the categories were comparable in both ordered and random sequence types while the performance of the participants was comparable at the end of the first session except a significant difference between accuracy of the participants between day and night groups in the random sequence type. It was not evident whether this similarity in between the conditions is due to association between fingers and images or merely because of excessive number of training blocks. To study the effect of association of fingers and images and excessive training separately another experiment in which participants responded to the special location of a cueing circle rather than images was conducted.