Factors affecting short-term residual training effects

Five factors affecting the duration of short-term training residuals are considered below (Table 2.11).

Table 2.11.

Factors affecting the duration of short-term training residuals

(based on Hettinger, 1966; Counsilman & Counsilman, 1991; Zatsiorsky, 1995)

No Factors Influence

1. Duration of training before cessation

Longer training causes longer residuals 2. Load concentration level of

training before cessation

Highly concentrated training as compared with complex multi-component training causes shorter residuals.

3. Age and sport career duration of athletes

More aged and more experienced athletes have longer residuals

4. Character of preparation after cessation of concentrated training

Use of appropriate stimulatory loads allows prolonging residuals and prevents fast detraining.

5. Targeted abilities. Abilities associated with pronounced morphological and biochemical changes have longer residuals.

The first factor relates to training duration before cessation; it also relates to the long-term adaptation process. Certainly, low and medium-class athletes have relatively low levels of motor abilities and can improve them faster, but they still do not amass sufficient levels of biochemical and morphological adaptation. Hence, they lose short-term training effects faster than more experienced athletes, who retain these training outcomes for longer.

The second factor relates to load concentration and is more relevant for qualified athletes whose training cycles entail highly concentrated workloads directed towards a limited number of motor abilities. Such a design provides more pronounced training stimuli and higher improvement rate (see Chapter 4). However, cessation of such a training program leads to the decline of previously developed abilities. Hence, training residuals after highly concentrated training are shorter than after complex training with a lower rate of motor ability development.

The third factor is also concerned with long-term adaptation. Aged and more experienced athletes are more accustomed to any kind of training stimuli;

consequently, their response is less pronounced and improvement rate is lower. However, the higher long-term adaptation level determines the slower rate of ability loss. As a result, more aged and experienced athletes have longer training residuals, which allow them to perform smaller training volume. This is consistent with the real sports world, where training volumes for elite aged athletes are 20-25% less than for their younger counterparts.

The fourth factor postulates that appropriate specialized workouts helps to support a detrainable ability and prevent its quick decrease. This approach can be particularly important for training plans, which presuppose consecutive but not simultaneous development of many abilities, some of which decrease and others increase.

The fifth factor concerns the biological backgrounds of motor ability improvement. The rate of loss of training results differs significantly across motor abilities; some physiological systems retain increased levels of adaptation longer than others. The main reasons for this retention are the rate of morphological changes induced by training, the quantity of enzymes regulating biochemical reactions, and the availability of energy resources like glycogen, creatinphosphate, etc. (see Figure 2.6). Specifically, improved aerobic productivity is determined by an increase in capillary density, glycogen storage and particularly by the amount of aerobic enzymes, which increases in comparing with the non trained people up to 120% and even more. In contrast, increased anaerobic productivity is supported by relatively small increases of phosphocreatine storage of about 12-42%, peak lactate accumulation of 10-20% and anaerobic enzymes of 10-30 %. Consequently, aerobic ability, which is supported by pronounced morphological and biochemical changes, retains near to peak level in highly trained athletes for weeks (Mujika & Padilla, 2001). Anaerobic abilities, particularly maximal speed, are conditioned by relatively weak morphological and biochemical changes and retain near to peak level for shorter periods of time.

Similarly to aerobic abilities the maximal strength training produces relatively long residual. Indeed, peak maximal strength is provided by improved neuromuscular regulation and enlarged muscle mass. Both factors are retained for a long time and determine slow loss of maximal strength. Conversely, strength endurance drops much faster after training cessation (Figure 2.9). Particularly performance in relatively short-time strength exercises, which relies on lactic tolerance remain on sufficient level during the first two-three weeks and afterwards decline quickly.

Case study. Eight collegiate swimmers performed standard-paced 200-yard

swims following one, two and four weeks of detraining. Average blood lactate increased during the first week from 4.2 to 6.3, during the second week to 6.9, and after four weeks of detraining to 9.7 mM. (Wilmore and Costill, 1993). The initial blood lactate value (4.2 mM) indicates that test was performed near to level of anaerobic threshold. Detraining caused reduction of swimming economy and pace-specific endurance. Thus, maintenance of the same velocity required increased involvement of the anaerobic metabolism and much higher lactate production.

The sophisticated changes are noted with regard to peak speed ability. On the one hand this ability is less improved by training and drops less during detraining; on the other hand the peak-level of maximal speed, typical for sprint events, is obtained by very delicate and highly precise neuro-muscular interactions, which are relatively

unstable and can be maintained only by means of purposeful and intense training stimulation.

More detailed consideration of residual training effects related to Block Periodization appears in Chapter 4, where this concept has particular importance.

Summary

Training effects are the outcomes of athletes' systematic efforts. Their comprehension and interpretation are important for both planning and analyzing training. Acute training effect is produced by the execution of several exercises and reflects changes in body state that occur during the exercise. Immediate training effect is evoked by a single workout or/and by a single day of training; correspondingly, it summarizes changes of body state induced by these workloads. Cumulative training

effect reflects changes in body state and level of motor/technical abilities resulting

from a series of workouts. The cumulative training effects determine whether improvement in an athlete's performance occurs or not. These effects draw special attention from coaches and athletes particularly when performances are not sufficiently successful. The changes in an athlete’s body state that characterize cumulative training effect can be analyzed by appropriate physiological indicators, and/or with the sport-specific fitness measures including performance gains. There are special cases in which training effect and performance gains occur not in the final phase of the training program but after some temporal delay necessary for

morphological and physiological changes to occur. This process is called delayed

transformation and this particular type of adaptation in athletes is called delayed training effect.

One type of the cumulative training effect relates to a situation when an athlete stops train a certain ability that then begins to decrease. However, for a given period the ability can remain near the acquired level. Retention of developed sport abilities after training cessation beyond a given time period is called residual training effect and changes in body state that are retained over a given period are called training

residuals. There are different types of training residuals: long-term training residuals,

which are induced by many years of training and remain for a number of years; medium-term training residuals, which remain for a number of months, and short- term training residuals, which reflect changes in body state caused by the preceding training (Table 2.10).

Implementation of these concepts in coaching practice is essential for the block periodization, which is intended to make athletic preparation more efficient and training effects more manageable and predictable.

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