Immediate training effect

As defined above (Table 2.1), immediate training effect are the changes in body state induced by a single workout or/and by a single training day. The

immediate training effect arises as a result of summation of acute training effects from several exercises. As a rule a single workout and a single working day in high-

performance athletes include one or two dominant training modalities; the reason is that athletes cannot respond to many stimuli acting simultaneously on many targets. However, the training sessions of low-level and medium-level athletes can include more diverse exercises. Consequently, the immediate training effect can be more

selective when a workout is concentrated on a specific ability; or more complex and

combined if the workloads are aimed in many different directions.

2.3.1. Indicators of immediate training effect

Evaluation of the immediate training effect is an essential part of the coaching routine. Usually the coach’s assessment is based on subjective estimation of

performance, the current results of several measurements (performance time, HR etc.) and visible signs of fatigue and readiness for further workouts (Table 2.5).

Table 2.5.

Indicators of immediate training effect Characteristics Indicators Total amount (‘volume’)

of training load per session/day

Total mileage, mileage of intensive exercises; number of lifts, throws, stunts; net-time of playing ball games, etc. The athlete’s subjective

response

Sleep, appetite, general activity, muscle soreness, level of fatigue, willingness to train, etc.

Objectively measured athlete’s response

Resting HR after awaking at the morning; results of the biochemical analyses: blood urea and CPK in the morning after a working day; changes of test results (grip force, standing vertical jump etc.), body weight etc.

The coach’s pedagogical estimation

Correspondence of executed work to training program: completely corresponds, mostly corresponds, far from complete, failure of daily program.

Let’s consider the data presented in table 2.5. Sport-specific indicators of performed workloads give primary objective information. Indeed, all measures of athlete response have value as feedback on training stimuli. Very often the total amount of performed exercises (total mileage, number of lifts, throws etc.) gives the ultimate indication – the athlete completed the planned workload.

Examination of athletes’ subjective responses is the most readily available, cheapest and informative way to characterize immediate training effects. The subjective estimates used most widely usually pertain to sleeping, appetite, general activity and willingness to train. Muscle soreness is not employed so often for self- estimation; nevertheless it appears very often following big workloads or the

juxtaposition of several workouts. Delayed muscle soreness is particularly strong after several types of exercises especially those with a pronounced eccentric component like downhill running, yielding actions, drop jumps etc. Even body weight trends can provide a relevant indication, particularly in sports divided into weight categories.

Several objective variables of athletes' response have been adopted in different sports, the most widely used indicators of immediate training effect being resting HR, blood urea and CPK. Resting HR is one of the simplest and most practical of the accepted modes of monitoring athletes. Basal HR level should be obtained from a well rested athlete in bed immediately after a night's sleep. When HR corresponds to basal level or increases less than 6 bpm (beats per minute) this indicates good

recovery; when HR increases more than 6 but less than 10 bpm – this usually reflects sufficient adaptation but considerable fatigue; an HR increase of 11-16 bpm indicates a high level of fatigue; an increase of more than 16 bpm shows excessive fatigue and should serve as an alarm signal.

Blood urea and creatine phosphokinase (CPK) are usually measured in blood samples taken from athletes before breakfast and after 12 hours of fasting. Blood urea is used to estimate metabolic fatigue and metabolic recovery; it serves as an indicator of protein metabolism and increases particularly after long-duration endurance exercises or highly intensive strength workloads (Viru & Viru, 2001). For a long period this indicator was used especially in endurance sports to prevent overtraining. CPK as a blood enzyme reflects the level of muscle tissue breakdown, which is

particularly suitable for combat sports and explosive strength exercises such as throws, jumps and shot put. On the other hand, the considerable damage of muscle fibers that occurs during marathon running also causes an increase in CPK level (Wilmore & Costill, 1993). Compared with other indicators, CPK is extremely variable; its levels after highly intensive or combat exercises can reach three to four times the basal values.

Besides the above-mentioned physiological indicators there are a number of variables indicating athletes' response with regard to the neuro-physiological and sensory systems. For example, time reproduction and force differentiation can be measured to evaluate neuro-physiological reactions induced by highly coordinative training that includes learning and perfection of technical skills.

The coach’s pedagogical estimation is the last but not the least important for evaluating immediate training effect.

2.3.2. Monitoring immediate training effect

Employing objective scientific indicators facilitates better evaluation and control of immediate training effects. At the same time, the use of simple practical indicators also can improve the quality of training (Table 2.6).

Table 2.6.

Four-component scale for monitoring immediate training effects Component Points Clarification of evaluating state Resting HR after night's sleep 4 3 2 1 HR increases 0-6 bpm HR increases 7-10 bpm HR increases 11-16 bpm

HR increases more than 16 bpm Fatigue-restoration state 4 3 2 1

Full restoration, lack of fatigue

Sufficient restoration, slightly fatigued Partial restoration, substantial fatigue Poor restoration, very fatigued Willingness to train 4

3 2 1

Strong willingness to train Medium willingness to train Poor willingness to train Lack of willingness to train Coach’s estimation of training day 4 3 2 1

Completely corresponds to daily program Mostly corresponds to daily program

Does not correspond enough to daily program Failure of daily program

Total score 4-16 Integrative estimation of training day

Case study. Immediate training effect was monitored during a 20-day training camp

of high-level athletes (canoe-kayak paddlers); each single day was estimated by means of the four-component scale. Every morning the athletes measured their resting HR in the bed after the night's sleep; then, in the lobby of hotel they completed the self-estimation forms, in which they were asked to evaluate their “fatigue-restoration state” and “willingness to train”; the coach gave his integrative estimation of the previous day's work. The entire four-component evaluation scale provided a total estimate of the previous day of training. After preliminary

instructions and approval the evaluation procedure took one-two minutes for each athlete; individual current data were plotted on the day-by-day graph. The graphs of two selected athletes show deviations in their current state as a response to the previous day's work (Figure 2.5). When the total score decreased to the critical level (indicated by triangles) individual training programs were corrected. The training camp was followed by an international competition in which all the participants attained their best performance.

Insert Figure 2.5 about here

In conclusion, immediate training effect incorporates many-faceted and multilateral changes in athletes’ body state; these changes affect their readiness and sensitivity to ongoing workloads and, correspondingly, determine short-term training planning.