Training techniques and materials are quickly changing with technology, demographics and even terrorism motivating some o f these changes. E-learning has provided a viable alternative for traditional in-house training as trainees have the convenience of being able to attend training seminars anywhere as long as there is a computer and internet connection. Furthermore, demographic changes and changes in the workforce correspondingly produce changes in attitudes, culture, values and the motivations of a
workforce becoming increasingly more diverse. Security training has become exceedingly more important, especially following the September i i , 2001 bombing of the New York World Trade Centres (Kalargyrou, Robert & Woods, 2011).
2.6.1 Level of Computer-based Training Adoption
It has been shown that computers benefit training and transfer o f information in many Fortune 500 companies, such as Ford Motor Company, J.C. Penney, Walmart and IBM. Computer-based training reduces employee training time, enhances learning and retention, and improves sales (Harris & West, 1993). It was found in training entry-level hospitality managers that using interactive videos produced the same test scores in less training time than instruction based on classroom training (Harris & West, 1993). These findings suggest that an interactive-training programme is not necessarily more effective than traditional classroom training but it is more time efficient for training groups (Harris & West, 1993). Computer-based training can provide new hires with a jump-start toward becoming productive staff members. Some programmes are aimed at entry-level employees while others target employees who would benefit from advanced skills (Durocher, 2000), for example, supervisors and managers. Computer- based training is based on an interactive rather than linear process, such as adopting multimedia video. The benefit of interactive media is that the trainee cannot "zone out". The training includes exercises which reinforce learning throughout each session and which must be completed before advancing to the next session (Durocher, 2000). By definition, such training is optimum in preparing trainees for interactive tasks or skills. For example, it would be suitable for training customer service representatives who must interact with customers and establish what kind of interaction works best with a particular customer type (Durocher, 2000). Computer-based training is also effective with multiple sites that are geographically dispersed. The same training can be
delivered to employees in different geographical locations without having to provide or send an instructor to deliver a training programme. The technology is also suitable for trainees who benefit from learning at an individual pace and on their own time (Durocher, 2000). Moreover, computer-based training can be provided in a m ulti lingual form at in accordance with an employee's profile. It is also effective with individual restaurants which have large staff numbers in a single job category (Durocher, 2000). Hofstetter (1995) indicated that multimedia is rapidly becoming a basic skill which would be as crucial to life in the next century as reading is today. He found that multimedia is very effective when used in classroom training which is gauged by learners' retention rates. Multimedia enables learners to see, hear and do at the same time. These three senses combined together enhance learners' retention rates then when seeing, hearing and doing are performed separately. The use of computer-based multimedia technology and high-quality programmes has reduced training costs and the amount of erroneous information communicated to customers.
2.6.2 Perceived Impact of Computer-based Training
Confronting increased competition but with fewer business resources, a recession and a growing global market, the demand for cost-effective learning strategies is escalating. Research suggests that training hours and training cost can both be reduced by using computer-based training as a corporate learning strategy (Julin & Ejiskov, 2009). Technology adds substance and flexibility to training and its implementation is growing (Goad, 1997). Schaffer and Hannafin (1986) claimed that interactive technologies have had a significant effect on training and will continue to do so. Questions remain about the quantity and quality of interactive learning as to which is more effective in mastering a subject matter; however, organisations which use computer-based training categorically conclude that it is superior to traditional methods of instruction.
Benefits of Computer-based Training
Using information technology has become crucial in today's business environment. Evidence that information technology has become accepted and widespread is apparent in many areas of the service industry in general and in the hotel industry in particular, for example, MICROS OPERA Enterprise Solution of Property Management System (PMS), MICROS 9700 HMS Point-of-Sale System o f Food and Beverage Division, SpaSoft o f Spa Department, Delphi of Catering Department, PeopleSoft of Human Resources Division, and so on. Information technology has dramatically changed the nature of products, processes, companies, industries as well as competition. Previous studies have suggested that information technology can be used as a strategic weapon to allow a company to obtain competitive advantage, which is defined as "benefits accruing to a firm in terms of changes in the firm's competitive position" (Sethi & King, 1994). Aksu and Tarcan (2002) asserted that using information technology produces competitive advantages, reduces costs, results in more time and the acquiring and sharing of information in the hotel industry. It can also be asserted that there are many different forms of usage within information technologies, for example, e-mail, Internet, intranet, central reservation systems, electronic trade, Web applications, and so on. Travel agencies use Internet as a communication tool and hotels use it to market their goods and services, to book reservations and to assess customer feedback such as complaints and suggestions. Technology, meanwhile, influences the way many organisations provide their training.
Technologies have had an effect on training delivery, administration and support (Noe, 2005). Technology offers a way of being able to provide consistent training and evaluation which is quantifiable. Allen (1998) states "Students hear, see and learn the same procedures regardless of their past experience or learning skills". Students
continually interact with the information presented and may be periodically tested by the system to determine their performance levels. These levels may be measured against company criteria to determine the progress and suitability o f each employee. A society which is industrialised needs a considerable amount o f training, for example, assembly line workers are needed to make products, technicians are needed to understand complex systems and repair them, doctors need to test their knowledge of medicine and illnesses without compromising human lives, and so on. Technology is the one tool which is best able to solve these problems (Farr & Psotka, 1992). Computer-based learning has developed a key role in the powerful and transformative impetus to meet learning demands and extend the parameters o f traditional forms of training. Due to its rapid development, computer-based learning has become an option for any organisation seeking to advance the skills and capacity o f its staff, to improve staff morale and increase staff retention rates. More and more organisations are discovering that computer-based learning provides the kind of accessible, efficient and cost-effective training that suits their needs. Some organisations have also come to the realisation that computer-based learning result in competitive edge, for which reason it is being incorporated into overall business strategies (Ali & Magalhaes, 2008).
There is a lot to be gained from information technology in terms o f competitive advantage. Customer satisfaction can only be obtained by having accurate customer information so as to meet their needs and provide current information on the industry's competitive environments. Products, and services' customer are relying on newer technology for recreational information and more convenient ways of booking (Main, 1995). More advanced technology in addition to lower costs for the technology are changing training delivery, making it more realistic and providing employees with the opportunity to choose where, when and how they conduct their training. New technologies, like Internet, e-mail, CD-ROMS, DVDs and satellite, provide flexibility for
training with regard to time and place (Noe, 2005). The Internet and the Web give
employees access to information and enables them to send and receive this
information. It also enables them to locate and gather resources, such as software,
photos, videos, and so on. The Internet means that employees have immediate access to and can communicate with people with expertise. They can join newsgroups and bulletin boards devoted to specific subjects of interest, and they can post messages, respond to messages and other postings (Noe, 2005). He identifies the American
Society for Training and Development (ASTD) which has a website
(http://www.astd.org) where users are able to research articles on training areas, review training programmes, obtain training materials and participate in discussions via chat rooms on various training subjects such as e-learning and assessment.
Absence o f Instructor/Facilitator
Instructors and trainers have a crucial role in the learning environment but also have normal human constraints such as time restrictions, inconsistent delivery o f training materials, limit of class size/how many trainees can be trained at one time, and the challenges o f identifying and accommodating the specific learning needs and speed of individuals (Hird, 1997; Mattila, 1997; Shundich, 1997). The hotel industry is confronted with two critical challenges: managing a work force with is culturally diverse and preparing this work force for productivity. Training provides a solution to dealing with these two challenges (Brecka & Rubach, 1995; Rodger, 1993; Thomas, 1992). Studies have shown that the computer is way to improve training effectiveness (Ferreira, 1997; Hofstetter, 1995; Law, 1997; van Hoof et al., 1995). Davis (1989) carried out two field tests with 107 technology users and found a significant link between technology users' attitudes towards usefulness, convenience of use and user technology acceptance. Moreover, technology users' attitudes towards usefulness and technology usage and
also convenience of use and technology usage reveal relatively strong connections. Downey and Zeltmann (2009) explored an important factor in successful IT training, an employee's perception o f his/her computer competence and skill. Computer self- efficacy (CSE) helps determine the computer activities an individual would like to engage in, the effort to be spent in pursuing and learning the activity, and it helps with perseverance to overcome obstacles. Organisations provide computer skills training to improve competence and performance of on-the-job tasks. Self-efficacy studies reveal that motivation aspects must be considered in addition to presenting skills and knowledge items to employees. Employees with high self-efficacy have better retention rates, learn more quickly and show more persistence when confronted with adversity. Hence, trainers should focus on students' self-efficacy as a vehicle to learning skills as well as on the skills themselves (Downey & Zeltmann, 2009).
Gavin (2003) and Frazis etal. (1998) found that 69 percent of training is instructor-led in the classroom, 16 percent is computer-based training with no instructor, 10 percent is instructor-led via a remote location and 5 percent is other training methods. There are many benefits to using technology for training such as lower travel costs, better training accessibility, consistent delivery of training materials, better access to experts, shared learning, exchange of information and feedback and the ability for trainers to learn at their own pace. Even though trainer-led classroom instruction is still the most preferred training methodology, firms report plans to deliver a vast amount of training through learning technologies such as CD-ROMs and intranets (Noe, 2005). Technology has lowered costs associated with training delivery, improved the effectiveness o f the learning environment and facilitated training's contribution to business objectives (Noe, 2005). Computer-based-learning has two kinds o f benefits. The first benefits are strategic which enhance competitive advantage through the ability of e-learning to develop a global workforce, react to shorter cycles of product development, manage
flatter organisations, adapt to employee work formats and hours, and improve skills and knowledge. The second kind o f benefits are tactical which include decreasing travel expenses, offering just-in-time learning, facilitating course updates and reinforcing current network infrastructure (Ali & Magalhaes, 2008).
Computer-controlled training systems provide programmes which aim to
accommodate the individual needs of staff. Unlike computer-based programmes, trainers cannot guarantee consistency of delivery over repeated sessions, be immediately available to trainees or may not have the skills required to cope with the diverse learning levels and modes of communication o f a varied employee population (Harris & Bonn, 2000). The 1999 ASTD State of the Industry Report revealed that instructor-led training is declining in leading-edge companies while use o f digital instructional technology is on the rise (Farrell, 2000).
Friend and Cole (1990) noted that trainees did, however, prefer to have a trainer present when using interactive programmes, suggesting that training effectiveness and trainee motivation may rely on a facilitator being present at some time during the instruction. Magnini and Honeycutt Jr. (2005) also noted that in spite of technological advancements, a long standing feature of good customer relations continues to exist. That is, in cultivating and maintaining customer loyalty and commitment, it remains crucial in face-to-face encounters to remember and address customers by name. Technology is unable to replace the actual presence and interaction of people.