It is paramount that Training Managers train employees to do their jobs effectively. Nevertheless, literature detailing the methods training managers employ to achieve different training objectives is sparse (Perdue, Ninemeier & Woods, 2002). Training is clearly needed and important but also costly. Like most things in an organisation, in order to capitalise on investment returns training must be as effective as possible. Hence, the training objective should be to ensure employees go on to achieve a level of
competency such that the long term advantages for the organisation are greater than the training costs (Read & Kleiner, 1996). Adopting an effective training methodology is clearly key. Lakewood Research and Training Magazine (Joinson, 1995) details ten training methods that are employed in business: lectures, one-on-one instruction, films, videotapes, audio tapes, slides, role play, case studies, games/simulation and computer-based training (Read & Kleiner, 1996). O f all the training methods none is considered more effective than any other. When identifying the most effective training method for a specific training programme there are many things to consider: the material being presented, how many employees are being trained, trainee ability and background, the nature and extent o f equipment available, the time line for training and training objectives (Sims, 1990). Where feasible, it is most beneficial to choose a method which focuses on trainee participation and providing constructive feedback as feedback enhances trainee ability to retain and subsequently apply what has been learned. To meet customer demands, employers understand the need for employees to continually upgrade and improve their knowledge, skills and abilities (Gamio & Sneed, 1992; Harris & Cannon, 1995; Haywood, 1992). What remains problematic for many hospitality-training executives is providing adequate training to employees which results in consistently high customer service quality (Barsky & Labagh, 1992; Gregor & Withiam, 1991; Ross, 1995). Using an effective training method does not necessarily ensure an effective training process. It is recommended that the training method be followed by a flow of training cycle. Choosing an effective method is one aspect of creating an effective training programme. However, beforehand one must analyse and understand the needs of the organisation and then establish the objectives o f the training programme. The training programme's objectives subsequently determine relevant course content and presentation method (Read & Kleiner, 1996).
It is important that employees feel the methodology used during hospitality training is an effective tool for learning. Employee satisfaction with training depends on the methodology used during the training programme. It has been found that employees whose training involves a methodology which they believe to be most effective for learning are considerably more satisfied with their training than employees who prefer another training methodology to the one being used (Schmidt, 2007). Hence, the methodology selected for training employees is paramount. Schmidt (2007) explored the differences between preferred employee training methodologies and the training practices already in use. It was found that instructor-led training is the most prevalent methodology received by trainees and also the most preferred methodology. Trainee satisfaction tends to be towards training which is presented in a way that is most conducive to learning. Employees prefer training which involves face-to-face training, such as mentoring or coaching, which is consistent with prior findings by Rowden and Conine Jr. (2003) who also identified the importance of a training setting that encourages talking, information sharing, and collaboration between or among trainees and instructor.
2.3.1 On-the-job Training
On-the-job training is "the planned process of developing task-level expertise by having an experienced employee trains a novice employee at or near the actual work setting" (van Zolingen et al., 2000; de Jong & Versloot, 1999). One-on-one instruction falls into the category of on-the-job training or off-the-job training. On-the-job training is training that takes place while the employee is at work and off-the-job training is training that takes place outside of the employee's designated work setting. It is important to distinguish between the two as both types o f training have distinct advantages and disadvantages (Read & Kleiner, 1996). With on-the-job training, the
employee performs work duties in the work environment under typical working conditions. This is advantageous as it allows the employee to readily apply newly acquired skills to the job setting and may also reduce training related costs as the employee continues to be productive while training. On the flip side, training employees could result in the inefficient use of resources, poor initial performance and the risk of costly errors being made (Sims, 1990). Noe (2005) defines on-the-job training (OJT) as "new or inexperienced employees learning through observing peers or managers performing the job and trying to imitate their behaviour". On-the-job training can be beneficial in training new employees and improving the skills of experienced employees, for example, with the introduction of new technology, internal departmental cross-training of employees and with the orientation of employees who have been transferred or promoted to new positions. On-the-job training is an appealing training option compared to other methods in so far as it requires less time and financial investment for materials and trainers' salaries. The expertise of managers and peers is employed through on-the-job instruction. Successful on-the-job training, meanwhile, has its roots in the principles which underscore social learning theory, namely using a quality trainer, manager or peer to model behaviour or skill and communicate specific behaviour, practice, reinforcement and feedback (Noe, 2005). In the hospitality industry, on-the-job training is the most prevalent method used. Instruction is given to non-management employees and both the trainee and trainer work within the job setting. In short, the learner learns by doing with follow up to ensure he or she has achieved competency (Williams, 1974). In the hotel industry it would appear that on-the-job training takes precedence globally over other training methods with dining service employees in particular regarding it as the most effective training method and mentor's performance a key factor (van Zolingen etal., 2000).
There have been demands for improvements of how the hotel industry makes use of training methods (Perdue, Ninemeier & Woods, 2002). Harris and Cannon (1995) proposed that the industry rely less on traditional training methods and instead aim to improve the way in which training is carried out. Barrows (2000) remarked that club managers expressed the need for employee training improvement but found improvements hampered by time constraints. Data analysis revealed that one-to-one training, namely, on-the-job training, is a preferred method in the hotel industry. Years of experience and education level may result in respondents having different views on the use of alternative training methods (Perdue, Ninemeier & Woods, 2002). One-to- one training is linked with case study as the preferred method for acquiring problem solving skills. It is also considered the most suitable overall method as well as preferred method, apart from interpersonal skill development, for listed objectives. As a general training method, videotape use is considered moderately effective with audio conferencing, audiotapes, programmed instruction, computer conferencing, paper and pencil methods, and self-assessment considered least useful. Paper-pencil instruction received a low rating but is still widely used for orientation materials, handbooks, manuals, and so on (Perdue, Ninemeier & Woods, 2002).
On-the-job training is usually adopted by hotels because it is more flexible, more cost effective and new employees are more readily available (de Jong & Versloot, 1999). Rodriguez and Gregory (2005) found that Food and Beverage employees expressed a preference for on the job learning over being told what to do outside of the work environment. They prioritised the need and effectiveness o f on-the-job training compared to off-the job training and noted differences in how things were done in different workplaces, as well as the need for learning through mentoring with a more experienced employee. The findings of this study with regard to preferred training method were consistent with the findings o f Perdue, Ninemeir and Woods (2002). One-
on-one training has been found to be a useful method for achieving training objectives while training contents which are not apparently relevant to the work are disregarded and not considered useful. On-the-job training is also advantageous in that there is a strong connection between training and practice, skills are acquired more effectively and the transfer problem is lessened due to training being provided in the workplace (van Zolingen et al., 2000). Harris and Cannon (1995), meanwhile, indicated that it was a waste of time and resources that the hospitality industry continued to rely upon traditional training methods as such methods are seldom as effective as they could be. The demand for training improvements is garnering industry leaders' attention and support. There are different situations in the training practices of different hotels. Most managers entrust training duties to their department heads and subordinates; hotels employ a variety of training methods and techniques in order to provide employees with the most effective training programmes; hotels do not focus only on training new employees but also on reinforcing the skills o f their more experienced and tenured employees; and hotels confront many similar challenges in their efforts to effectively train employees as those experienced by their competitors in other areas o f the hospitality industry (Barrows, 2000).
On-the-job training has its disadvantages. Three concerns of training in the hotel industry are: inadequate training, misapplication of the concept of on-the-job training and frequent sink-or-swim workplace initiations. On-the-job training is effective when trainers themselves are adequately trained; however, this concept of training is often misrepresented and instead the "show as you go" method becomes a poor substitute. In effect, the only similarity between the "show as you go" method and proper on-the- job training, is that they are both carried out in the job setting. Formal on-the-job training consists of a systematic approach to skills training and is carried out by an established trainer in a work setting where the right props are available, as opposed to
simultaneously meeting work demands. Studies have shown that being "thrown into the deep end" is usually a frightening and overwhelming experience for new hires. It results in the acquisition of faulty techniques and what is described as merely treading water, barely being able to breathe and being robbed of one's dignity and grace (Poulston, 2008).
2.3.2 Classroom Training
Carter (2002) reported that 99 percent o f companies use traditional classroom-based training. Bassett (2006) supported this finding with a survey which revealed that e- learning had not yet taken training out of the traditional classroom setting. This appears to be improving as the study revealed that 70 percent o f the formal training provided was traditional, that is, it took place in the classroom. When the ASTD asked firms in 2001 how their training was provided, the result was split 76 percent via the classroom (Galagan, 2010). The training methodology employees most prefer is instructor-led training, which is also the training methodology most often received (Schmidt, 2007). Classroom training has predominantly been used to facilitate workplace learning in the hotel industry worldwide (Marquardt et al., 2000). A quote by Dolezalek (2003) on a Kimberly-Clark case indicated that it employs a combination of training methods to make sure that employees know how to get products to market and appreciate their own contribution to making the process efficient and effective. Many organisation encounter similar situations when choosing a training method: it has to be developed or obtained in accordance with a budget, it has to be developed in a tim ely manner and it has to be made available to all employees (Noe, 2005). Galvin (2003) offered an overview of how frequently instructional methods are used in the hotel industry. He found that traditional training methods which do not involve technology in the delivery of lessons are used more frequently than training methods
which do involve technology, that is, instructor-led lessons, videos, workbooks, manuals and role play are used more often than virtual reality, simulations and computer-based games. The training methods being used in the hotel industry to teach employees new skills are broad and diverse.
Zhang, Lam and Bauer (2001) found that there should be more effort put into upgrading the managerial knowledge and skills of middle and upper management in the Hong Kong hotel industry and that such training could be carried out on-the-job or in the classroom. The study also revealed that the traditional training tools and techniques used most frequently in the Hong Kong hotel industry are not as effective as newer forms which involve technology. Other frequently used training techniques that are considered least effective are on-the-job training, classroom-style training, textbooks and manuals. In the hospitality industry there is heavy reliance on traditional training delivery methods which suggests that more innovative, effective and efficient tools aimed at improving both training delivery and training programme management are not being used (Harris & Bonn, 2000). Traditional classroom training programmes, such as that provided by Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong, are supervisory and management development programmes, new hire orientation, and corporate and customer service training. The State of the Industry Report reveals that classroom training is the predominant mode o f instructional delivery for leading edge firms (58 percent) and benchmark companies (77 percent) in spite of the continued increase in instructional technologies such as computer and web-based training. Instructor-led training will mostly likely continue to be the predominant mode of instruction for most training methods, partly because o f the unique qualities brought to the instructional relationship by the trainer (Farrell, 2000).
Most hospitality firm training professionals concur that the industry's main training issues include, but are not restricted to, the following: 1) trainee background; 2)
programme quality; 3) programme delivery form at flexibility; 4) the costliness of traditional delivery and 5) problems associated with monitoring training effectiveness and costs (Harris, 1995). Results show that traditional training techniques and tools are not used extensively in the hotel industry and there is a heavy reliance on them being used for a long period of time. Classroom-style training is most frequently used with large staff numbers; whereas, one-to-one training, such as on-the-job or shadowing an employee who is more experienced is most frequently used for job-related tasks. The tools used for training delivery are also in traditional format; textbooks and manuals are most frequently chosen; flip charts, overhead transparencies and PowerPoint presentation are the second most frequently used; and the third most frequently used tools are videotapes/DVD. Harris and Bonn (2000) indicated that existing training programmes remain traditional in form at and lack the diversity necessary for improving the quality of communication and general effectiveness. Employers understand that employees need to continually upgrade their skills, knowledge and abilities (SKAs) in order to meet customer demands (Gamio & Sneed, 1992; Harris & Cannon, 1995; Haywood, 1992). Training Managers, however, appear to be unable to solve the problem of providing employees with training that is adequate in terms of efficiency and effectiveness to be able to consistently provide customers with high-quality service. Many hospitality-training executives are trying to find a solution to this problem (Barsky & Labagh, 1992; Gregor & Withiam, 1991; Ross, 1995). There is a correlation between high-quality training and improving employee SKAs; however, how employees will be selected and programmes developed which incorporate specific needs, should be determined prior to training (Farber & Berger, 1985). According to Keller (1991), continuing to use outdated training methods and tools, along with overall mismanagement of training, produces high turnover, unhappy employees and customers, and huge loss of funds allocated for training. Different levels of skill may
require that training be offered in different languages, on different learning levels and in a way that is easily accessible. Training which depends on communication which is linear, is trainer-controlled, is limited in its communication of the subject matter, and also limits learner interaction and interest (Cavalier, Klein & Cavalier, 1995). Reports show that user-controlled training which includes subject matter with diverse levels of difficulty is superior to traditional training methods, highly motivating and cost effective (Choi & Hannafin, 1995; Ertmer etal., 1994; Kumar, Helgeson & White, 1994). Despite their popularity, studies suggest that such training techniques curtail student interaction when the participants are culturally diverse, and there are large discrepancies in learning and skill (Lee, 1997).