Findings from case studies one and two

7.1.1 The influence of negative past experiences in L2 learning

Evidence presented and discussed in sections 4.4 and 5.5.1 on pages 107 and 132 respectively showed that negative past experiences held by trainees and mentors did not interfere with L2 learning. Although behaviours linked to stress and anxiety developed at the beginning of the teaching process in both CS1 and CS2, these decreased as trainees and mentors gained in confidence as the learning process progressed.

This finding resonates with Beder & Valentine’s (1990) and Hayes’ (2003) studies which indicate that the educational histories of adult learners are often complicated by negative personal experiences. This has a potential to affect intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as discussed by Vallerand and Ratelle (2000) in chapter two. Georges & Kandler (2012) draw on the concept of self-efficacy associated with expectancy of success (for example, can I learn languages?) and attitude linked to values (do I want to learn languages and why?) to explain the role of negative past learning experiences. Expectancies and values, according to Gorges & Kandler (ibid), develop in secondary schools and function as antecedents of adult learning motivation triggered by affective memories. Pekrum et al (2002), cited in Gorges & Kandler (2012), argue that emotions are related to students’ academic motivation and achievement and that they may both be reflected in the value of a learning opportunity (for example, intrinsic value associated with joy) and contribute to people’s self-concept of ability (for instance, if learners consistently receive negative performance feedback, this will result in frustration). Schunk, Pintrich & Meece’s (2008) findings showed that affective memories are single-laden

168

episodes that can be remembered years later and still influence perceptions and behaviours because they relate to:

Momentous events [that] are remembered vividly [through the processes of conditioning or direct association] and continue to influence, inspire and sustain actions and beliefs long after their original occurrences that they represent for better or for worse. Pillemer (2001, p.124).

Prior uneventful experiences in learning another language may result in negative attitudes prompting adult learners to become naturally apprehensive as a result of frustrations and disappointment, a natural reaction against failure. Beder & Valentine (1990) claim that apprehension is an intuitive mechanism which occurs as a result of prior failure, which shows in over-generalisations, contempt and criticism. Houde (2006), in addition, explains that these behaviours or opinions are emotional barriers which lead learners into believing that the L2 is difficult and that they are not good at it.

7.1.2 Anxiety and L2 learning

The levels of anxiety in CS1, as discussed in section 4.4.2 on page 108, were not significant enough to hinder L2 learning. What was perceived as anxiety caused by negative L2 learning experiences was rather a learning tension which is defined as the distance between the known and the unknown - the latter being a concept, a process or a skill. Learning tension increases if adult learners fail to master the unknown, consequently increasing their concerns when failing to achieve an immediate learning goal (Noormohamadi, 2009). Oxford (1990) claims that when the level of anxiety resulting from the difference between a low level anxiety group and a high level one is greater than twenty six per cent, then there is a possibility that anxiety may block learning.

The levels of anxiety identified in the current study correlated to that of Noormohamadi (2009) who asserts that anxiety did not play a role in adult language learners in his research and he argues that any perceived anxieties are related to anticipation and the learning tension. Studies carried out by MacIntyre & Gardner (1989), Aida (1994), Saito & Samimy (1996), Na (2007), Liu & Jackson (2008), Kao & Craigie (2010), Wang (2010) and Latif et al. (2011) also showed a negative correlation between anxiety and language learning outcomes.

Participants in CS1 and CS2 actively engaged in authentic tasks and directed their own learning, were motivated and experienced a sense of ownership of their knowledge and tasks. This approach challenged negative affective memories, as discussed in section 7.1.1 on page 167, and contributed to disrupt negative perceptions related to L2 learning. This was

169

accompanied by a positive change of mindset allowing the subsequent development of new competences and skills that enabled trainees and mentors to self-regulate their learning. This finding coincides with the results of Bye, Pushkar & Conway’s (2007) study, where they showed that intrinsic motivation and positive affect increased when a variety of classroom strategies were used to promote autonomous behaviours. Additionally, their study found that a reduction in anxiety led students to a greater participation in the classroom as they became confident active partners with the teacher/tutor, achieving self-regulation of learning.

7.1.3 Benefits of cognitive apprenticeship (CA) to develop L2 subject knowledge and teaching expertise

In this study the use of a CA model enabled both mentors and trainees to develop L2 knowledge and teaching skills. Evidence discussed in sections 5.5.2 and 5.6.2 on pages 133 and 139 and summarised in Figure 15 on page 140, showed that the use of a revised SBI approach incorporating collaborative learning within the framework of CA enabled trainees and mentors to develop and increase subject knowledge and teaching skills by becoming engaged in the processes of modelling, scaffolding, coaching, exploration, articulation and reflection. This resulted in a process of joint inquiry between trainees and mentors through reciprocal learning, also mirrored by the pupils they taught.

7.1.4 Using collaborative learning through peer interaction

Collaboration between trainees, mentors and pupils in CS1 and CS2 through the use of a revised SBI approach challenged preconceived perceptions of difficulty and low self-esteem and contributed to create a positive disposition which encouraged active engagement and motivation.

Working collaboratively in pairs or in small groups provided an opportunity for discussion, practice and experimentation with the target language in an intimate context without the pressure of being exposed to a wider audience. The evidence presented and discussed in sections 4.7 on page 113, 5.5.3 on page 136 and 5.7.2 on page 144, showed that the use of talk partners helped to ease feelings of anxiety, promoting the development of self-confidence. As a result, trainees, mentors and pupils became more active, prompting discussions to negotiate meaning and the understanding of tasks and to provide modelling and support to peers. Learners alternated the role of the MKO and this kept them engaged resulting in the achievement of learning goals and increasing motivation further.

170

7.1.5 Developing learning autonomy and self-regulation of learning

The use of metacognition promoted learning autonomy and self-regulated learning. The revised SBI model enabled learners to think about their learning which, in turn, led to the use of executive knowledge to problem solve language tasks and identify further learning needs. Whilst gaining expertise in the use of strategies, the trainees also developed autonomy by setting up and negotiating their own learning goals as evidenced in sections 4.7 and 5.5.2 on pages 113 and 133, respectively. During the inquiry process, which comprised four phases including triggering an event, exploration, integration and resolution, the trainees made judgements about their own learning progress using reflection (individual cognition), whilst the group facilitated cognitive awareness and development of knowledge (shared cognition). This finding was in line with the results obtained by Chiu & Kuo (2009) who concluded that ‘group members monitored and controlled one another’s knowledge, emotions and actions, they agreed or disagreed with each other’s ideas and influenced each other’s actions through questioning or commands’ (p.46).

7.1.6 The development of L2 reading skills

The use of a revised SBI approach produced a greater development of the receptive skills, in particular, reading comprehension. Evidence gathered and discussed in sections 4.8 on page 121, 5.5.4 on page 137 and 5.7.3 on page 151 seemed to indicate that L1 literacy knowledge, such as the identification of genres, textual and paratextual features, and cognate words make L2 reading skill easier to develop than the others. L1 literacy skills encouraged learners to use this prior knowledge in the form of reading-comprehension strategies, such as identification of a text source, inferences, understanding the gist, amongst others to build their understanding of the target language. This relates to Cummins’ (1979, 1984) linguistic interdependence hypothesis in which he argues that language and literacy skills can be transferred from one language to another. The results obtained in the current study relate to the findings of Sparks

et al (2008) study who concluded that ‘students’ facility with reading and spelling in the L1 is

related to their learning to read and spell in L2, demonstrating cross-linguistic transference of skills’ (p.164). Koda’s (2005) study also showed that language units are linked to one another to form a network and that the retrieval of specific activation patterns stored in memory (for example, letter strings, and letter-sound correspondences) is effortless and is likely to be activated by L2 input. Additionally, Sparks et al. (2008) found that students’ decoding and spelling in their alphabetic L1 (English) accounted for their decoding and spelling skills in an alphabetic L2 (Spanish, French and German).

171

7.2 A comparison and contrast of findings of case studies two and three