the early introduction of modern languages can contribute to the development of full individuals and learn from the experience of the countries which have included modern languages in their primary school curriculum. In order to review these practices, this section provides a brief account of the recommendations of the Council of Europe in relation to modern languages whilst focusing on the traditions of some European countries which have incorporated the teaching and learning of modern languages at a young age.
When acknowledging the right to quality language education, The Council of Europe (COE) has identified the reasons supporting its belief that it is important for the European population to be able to communicate in other languages aside from their own. These have been summarised as follows:
1. ‘to deal with the business of everyday life in another country, and to help foreigners staying in their own country to do so;
2. to exchange information and ideas with young people and adults who speak a different language and to communicate their thoughts and feelings to them;
3. to achieve a wider and deeper understanding of the way of life and forms of thought of other peoples and of their cultural heritage’ (COE 2008, p. 2).
The introduction of modern languages in primary schools appears to be an effective way of addressing the apathy towards languages, as children may benefit from an early exposure to other languages. With this in mind, many initial teacher education (ITE) providers across
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Europe have been realising the need to incorporate a linguistic element within their courses to provide future teachers with tools that enable them to equip young children with the skills necessary to raise language awareness and thus broaden their communicative competences. The intention of the Council of Europe to promote the linguistic diversity prevalent on the continent reflects the central objectives of its multilingual policy, which aims to ‘raise awareness of the value and opportunities in the European Union’s linguistic diversity and to give all citizens real opportunities to learn to communicate in two languages plus their mother tongue’ (COE 2008, p.4).
The development of new linguistic competences for individuals of the twenty-first century is vital, not only for personal purposes, but also for the economic growth and interconnection and interdependence of communities (Driscoll & Frost, 1999); these include individuals who are literate in one or more language(s) and who can operate in a multilingual and a multi-ethnic society. In an attempt to achieve this purpose, the Council of Europe recommends its members to ‘ensure that, from the very start of schooling, or as early as possible, every pupil is made aware of Europe’s linguistic and cultural diversity’ (COE 1998, p.6) by:
a. ‘adopting a learner-focused, action-oriented, competence-based approach;
b. taking into consideration the social and cultural dimensions of language learning; c. considering and treating each language in the curriculum not in isolation but as part of
a coherent plurilingual education; and
d. taking into consideration, in their analysis, the specific needs of the different groups of learners and of the general needs of modern European societies’ (COE 2008, p. 3). There has been much awareness of the growing need to equip all Europeans for the challenges of intensified international mobility and closer co-operation—not only in education, culture and science, but also in trade, commerce, and industry, and indeed in all walks of life (ibid). When planning educational reforms in the area of modern languages, especially those in ITE programmes, these factors should be taken into consideration. The resolution of the Council of Europe goes on to assert that ‘[it] is through realities like languages and a solid linguistic policy that social cohesion and competitiveness can be ensured’ (COE 1998, p.6). However, although languages and linguistic policies are a vital part of achieving the COE’s aims, they do not of themselves ensure social cohesion and competitiveness as this relies on a vast range of other social, political and economic factors. What is important, however, is that language learning should be seen as having a fully recognised value in itself as a process enabling members of a community to access a larger array of opportunities that may not been available to those who are monolinguals.
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The current situation, as reported by Eurydice (2010), indicates that pupils have to learn a foreign language from primary education onwards in almost all countries in Europe (only Malta, Portugal, and Albania out of twenty seven countries, at the current time of the Eurostats release in 2010, did not offer any languages in their primary school curricula). Moreover, according to Eurydice (ibid), in several European countries, children have to study a foreign language in the first year of primary education, or even at pre-primary level, such as is the case in Belgium (German-speaking Community) and Spain. A key finding in regard to the current situation in Europe is that the percentage of pupils in primary education learning at least one foreign language has risen almost everywhere during recent years, as indicated by the European Commission (COE, 1998), which also indicates that the tendency to offer this provision at an even earlier stage is apparent in most education systems. For instance, in France and Spain learning another language is compulsory from the age of six. Table 2 illustrates the current landscape of learning another language in France, Germany and Spain and compares the provisions of these countries with the current situation in England.
Table 2 Early L2 learning in England, France, Germany and Spain (COE, 2008)
England France Germany Spain
3 – 5 EYFS
optional optional optional optional
5 – 7 KS1
optional compulsory from six optional compulsory from six 7 – 11
KS2
compulsory from [2014]*
compulsory compulsory from eight compulsory 11 – 14 KS3 one compulsory language; two languages sometimes offered compulsory (including two languages where possible) compulsory including two languages for the more academically able. compulsory 14 – 16 KS4 Optional (gov. policy: 50–90% take up) compulsory (including two languages where possible) compulsory (including two languages where possible) compulsory 16 – 19 KS5 Optional Rarely studied compulsory to eighteen in any training/education compulsory to eighteen in any training/education optional but compulsory for academic study This is an addition introduced to the original source which says ‘2010?’ *
The creation of a school workforce that is aware of the multiplicity of situations affecting the teaching and learning of young people is of paramount importance. As such, the intention of the European Council has been expressed so as to equip the teaching body with skills and competences for its new roles ‘by developing both high-quality initial teacher education and a coherent process of continuing professional development [by] keeping teachers up to date with the skills required in the knowledge based society’ (COE, 2007, p. 4).
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