Nonaka and Takeuchi’s (1995) framework of organizational knowledge conversion which views the interaction processes of tacit and explicit knowledge is an important features in knowledge management research. The framework identifies socialization, internalization, externalization and combination (SECI) as the four modes of interaction that enable knowledge management. Central to this framework, is the conversion of one form of knowledge to the other. This framework talks about converting tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge and also further converting explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge continuously. When tacit knowledge is converted to explicit (externalization), knowledge is made available to those who might be available to learn. As explained in the previous sections, knowledge management is the process that involves among others- acquisition, transfer, and preservation of knowledge as its key components.
Understanding how knowledge of traditional healing is managed is fundamental to the current study. There is some consensus among scholars that indigenous knowledge in the third world countries especially Africa, is gradually facing extinction. As explained in the previous sections, some of the reasons why African indigenous knowledge has become endangered include but not limited to, colonialism, adoptions of foreign cultural practices and lack of interest from the new generations.
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Traditional medical knowledge through the use of plants and herbs is indigenous to Africa’s health care system. This practice is as old as mankind and is also used across the globe particularly in third world countries. Traditional medical knowledge is made up of the collective knowledge, skills, experiences of healers and knowledgeable people in a community. This knowledge has safe guarded the health of indigenous communities for centuries.
While some scholars define a traditional healer as someone who engages in indigenous medical practices, Sodi et al (2011) explain that a traditional healer is someone who possesses the gift of receiving spiritual guidance from the ancestral world. Sodi et al (2011) further explain that in most cases such a person is selected by the ancestors from a historical family background of healers. In South Africa, the Traditional Healers Act of 2007 states that traditional healing means the performance of a function, activity, process or service based on the traditional philosophy that includes the utilization of traditional herbs (Government gazette 2008). Similarly, the World Health Organization (1993) considers a traditional healers as an individuals who is recognized by his or her community as competent to provide health care service, using a range of substances and methods based on the community's social, cultural, and religious systems
In the South African context, Sodi et al (2011) explain that for one to become a healer, they must have a calling. To that effect, not everyone can wake up and decide to become a healer because according to Sodi et al (2011), a diviner is selected by the ancestors and can never self-select to become a traditional healer. It is, however, important to note that not everybody who has knowledge of herbs and traditional healing will have a calling. African indigenous communities are known to have communal knowledge which is used for different aspects of their daily lives. This knowledge is known to have always been passed down from generation to generation through oral tradition. Raseroka (2002) made reference of this type of knowledge by indicating that it survived for centuries through oral tradition where the experienced transferred what they know to the young so that the young can carry the knowledge forward. In this regard, those who might have gained knowledge of traditional healing usually come from families that have a history of traditional healers (Mokgobi 2014). To those who have a calling, the ancestor’s shows their presence by inflicting on their host serious illnesses, which are best understood by other healers experienced in the art of divination (Bojuwoye 2005, Mokgobi 2014). Bojuwoye (2005) further expounds that in addition to illnesses, the ancestors may show their presence through general body pains, severe headache, or general breakdown in bodily functions; sometimes there are unexplained misfortunes such as sudden loss of job, destruction of properties, or an accident that defies all
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possible explanations. When confronted with such misfortunes, and illnesses, an experienced healer can be consulted who will in turn consult the bones to see if indeed the person has a calling. Once that is confirmed, the would-be healer will then undergo the training process under the mentorship of the experienced healer.
The other group of traditional medical knowledge carriers, who have no calling, learn about traditional healing without receiving spiritual guidance from the ancestors. Denbow and Thebe (2006) allude to these when they say that culturally those who acquired knowledge of herbs that can be used for traditional healing are called ngaka e tshotswa 3in Setswana. Truter
(2007) further highlights that such a person possesses an extensive knowledge of curative herbs, natural treatments and medicinal mixtures of animal origin but does not receive a calling, however continues to use herbs to treat different illnesses. According to Truter (2007) this type of healers usually spends a few years as an apprentice and do not profess to have divine powers.
2.13.1 Training of traditional healers
Training of traditional healers is commonly done by much experienced healers who have the knowledge and skills to train others. Bojuwoye (2005) is of the view that training other healers is a specialty and yet another calling, in addition to simply being a healer. It is however, common to find healers who train the would-be healers while they are also, specialists in the healing of illnesses. Training of traditional healers is usually a full time thing. Those who are employed are expected to still continue with their training duties after work. According to Bojuwoye (2005) when the would-be healer accepts their calling and starts with the training, they are required to relocate to the master’s home for the duration of the training. The trainee becomes an additional member of the master’s home and training happens on a fulltime basis. The period of apprenticeship varies from a few months to 5 or more years.
2.13 2 Knowledge acquisition and transfer
Mokgobi (2014) is of the view that once training starts the trainees the trainee is required to live with the master and other trainees where they can constantly be observed at the same time they will be observing everything the master does and learning from that. Nonaka (1997) explain this process as socialisation where the knowledgeable person transfers experiences in the form of tacit knowledge to the trainees who will be inexperienced at the time. Bojuwoye (2005) explains that during knowledge acquisition and transfer, various exercises are
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employed to evaluate the progress of trainees, until such time the master is satisfied that trainees are ready and can be able to practice on their own. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995:63) argue that “apprentices work with their masters and learn craftsmanship not through language but through observation, imitation and practice. During this process, the following occur:
Socialization
Senior and experienced healers share their experiences.
The would-be healers acquire knowledge through observation, imitation, and practice. Externalization
Knowledge is converted into explicit concepts
Continuous dialog among healers on traditional healing
As explained in the preceding sections, the major thing that the master does is to help the would-be healer to understand and be able to communicate with the ancestors. This is mainly because healers believe that their knowledge comes from the ancestral world. It is not everybody who has a calling who can already communicate with the ancestors, Bojuwoye (2005) alluded to this by saying that that trainees who start training without such a heritage are assisted by their master to first perform appropriate rituals and then to cultivate dreams and recognize their spirit-guides in dreams.
Other things that form a vital part of training in addition to communicating with the ancestors and dream analysis include, learning about different medicinal plants and animal extracts to use, interpreting the bones, and different illnesses and how to treat them (Mokgobi 2014). Mokgobi (2014) further highlights that certain practices that are prescribed during the training include the following:
a trainee does not greet other people by shaking hands,
when greeting others, especially when they meet others in the homestead, they kneel down and clap hands by placing one hand over another in an up and down fashion or sideways,
when they meet relatives outside of the homestead, they drop a curtsy and clap hands without kneeling down,
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a trainee does not engage in a sexual relationship with anyone else (This is called ‘go ikilela4).
Sodi et al (2011) also speak of therapeutic dances (also known as Manchomane or Malopo among Sotho and Tsonga speaking people) which are frequently done during training. During this dances, there is the beating of drums, singing (songs which sometimes carries a message about a particular aspect of healing), clapping of hands. Sodi et al (2011) are of the view that this dance has some resemblance to a hypnotic trance that result in emotional expression and feeling of rejuvenation and hyper-suggestibility.
2.13.3 Knowledge preservation
Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) argue that experiences gained through socialization, externalization and combination get internalized into individuals‟ tacit knowledge bases. According to Sodi et al (2011) traditional healers keep their knowledge private and regard it as their personal property. Those who are trained by the same master are likely to have similar experiences when dealing with practical issues. According to Sodi et al, ancestors has the power to withdraw the power to heal from any healer who malpractices. This means that ancestors have the power to give or take knowledge of traditional healing. After knowledge of traditional healing is acquired from the master by the mentees, the combination and Internalisation of such knowledge occurs.
Combination
Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) state that during combination, different bodies of explicit knowledge are combined to form new knowledge. During combination the following happens in as far as traditional healers are concerned:
Trainees systemize what they learn into a knowledge system
Trainees align what they learnt to their existing knowledge Internalization
Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) are of the view that experiences gained through socialization, externalization and combination become part of the individuals tacit knowledge when they are internalized. In as far as traditional healers are concerned, it is common knowledge that their knowledge of traditional healing has been passed down from generation to generation through oral tradition. However, Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) are of the view that
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documenting knowledge helps individuals internalize their experiences, thus enriching their tacit knowledge. Books, articles, and all form of documented records, enable the transfer of explicit knowledge to other people, thus helping them experience the experiences of others indirectly. During internalization the following happens in as far as traditional healers are concerned:
Trainees turn all the knowledge they gained in to their personal knowledge
Trainees start healing patients practically
Trainees start having their personal ways of preserving their own knowledge
As explained in the preceding sections, knowledge of traditional healing is commonly known to be preserved orally. Once the training is completed and the master is happy about the progress of the trainees, an examination is arranged. This examination usually takes place in the presence of community members (Mokgobi 2014). The examination is usually a spectacle and it is in a form of a ceremony where the trainee is assessed if he or she has learned the trade and can be allowed to graduate and therefore practice as a traditional healer (Mokgobi 2014). The period of apprenticeship varies and may vary from a few months to a number of years.