Future Developments and Other Technologies Used to Measure BAC

of alcohol interlocks in non-offender populations, such as commercial fleets or in specific, high-risk groups. Offender-based alcohol interlock systems are intrusive due to repeated re-testing and the need to hold and blow into the device. This, plus the perceived high cost as well as the punitive basis for their use, has been seen as a barrier to broader uptake (see Chapter 4). There is a recognised need to develop user-friendly, unobtrusive alcohol interlock systems that could be implemented within non-offender driver groups.

The Driver Alcohol Detection System for Safety (DADSS) funded by NHTSA aims to develop an unobtrusive, rapid BAC assessment system ‘without inconveniencing sober drivers’ and which would ‘work consistently in all conditions and without maintenance’ (Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, 2011). DADSS is a

partnership between the NHTSA and the Automotive Coalition for Traffic Safety, with the Insurance Institute of Highway Safety (IIHS)as part of the expert panel. The initiative is working towards a breath-based and touch-based system. The long-term goal of the IIHS is the installation of a successful system into the vehicle fleet, recognising it would likely be offered as optional equipment.

The breath-based system, under development by Autoliv (Sweden), uses multiple sensors close to the driver to capture exhaled breath. The touch-based system, under development by Takata (Japan) and TruTouch Technology (USA) uses tissue spectroscopy to estimate a person’s BAC based on infrared light absorption by the skin. In addition to the test methods discussed above (i.e. semi-conductor, intoxilysers, fuel cell), there has been considerable research and development in alternative BAC assessment methods. Both of the systems in development under the DADSS initiative rely on technology discussed below, along with two other assessment methods.

59 _{Lifesafer C100 Ignition Interlock with camera, http://www.lifesafer.com/devices/fc100-ignition-interlock-with-camera/ Accessed 12}

Tissue spectrometry (skin sensors)

One means of detecting blood alcohol concentration is tissue spectrometry. The technology is based on using skin sensors to determine how much alcohol is present in the blood. It is based on the principles of spectrometry, which dictates that the light reflected back from each type of molecule is unique. Figure 5.4 provides an example of a tissue spectrometry unit.

Figure 5.4: Image of a Tissue Spectrometer60

Tissue spectrometry results are provided within one minute; they are more sanitary and less invasive than breathalysers and likely to have superior accuracy in correctly identifying BAC levels61_{. In the future, tissue}

spectrometry is likely to be based on finger or hand scans, such as in biometric finger printing devices (Technical Article 2008). At present, tissue spectroscopy devices are large and are being used in clinical settings (Pollard et al., 2007).

While there are reports of Toyota using the principles of tissue spectrometry to develop a steering wheel that can detect alcohol through the pores of skin (Mizuno, 2012), Pollard et al. (2007) notes that this would be difficult to achieve given the obstacles such as varying skin thickness on the hand, presence of calluses, density of bones in the fingers, the speed, size and logistics of the sampling process. Pollard et al. (2007) note that the process would not be passive since data acquisition would be hindered if the driver wore gloves or covered the steering wheel with a cloth.

The apparent ease in which BAC readings could be avoided may limit the value of tissue spectrometry in the context of a voluntary, or non-offender, alcohol interlock programs. The level of non-compliance could also be influenced by the absence of any penalties associated with drivers avoiding the test. Conversely, the ease of use combined with the potential to link the device to specific drivers through fingerprint technology means this type of technology could offer a promising way to expand alcohol interlock technology across the fleet.

60 _{Source: American Beverage Institute Publication (2009). ‘Detection Technologies: Present and Future’, pp. 4}

61 _{'Discoveries and Breakthroughs Inside Science', website, 'http://www.aip.org/dbis/stories/2007/17122.html', page last updated 2007.}

Offset/Distant spectrometry (‘alcohol sniffers’)

Offset or distant spectrometry is based on analysing a driver’s breath from a distance for evidence of alcohol. The technology, referred to commonly as 'alcohol sniffers', are sensors placed within the vehicle in vicinity of a driver to measure his/her breath or tissue for alcohol. ‘Sniffers’ can be placed in a police torch (flashlight) or on the vehicle seat, within the vehicle A or B-pillar, roof header rail near the driver’s head, within the steering wheel or can be used as a handheld device.

Alcohol sniffers, unlike tissue sensors, do not rely on skin contact and have been shown to detect even small amounts of alcohol in vapour, producing accurate readings even if the windows of a vehicle are wound down and air-conditioning is turned on (American Beverage Institute 2009).

An alcohol interlock, known as the ‘KAIA alcohol device62_{’ was developed to detect alcohol from a distance}

(such as when integrated to a steering wheel). The development consortium included Autoliv, Volvo, Hök Instrument AB and the Swedish Road Administration. The performance of the device made it possible to calculate BAC levels with high resolution provided that the driver blows 10-15 centimetres from the sensing device with results obtained within two to three seconds.

According to a NHTSA Report to Congress (Compton & Hedlund, 2007), in-vehicle alcohol detection systems, while promising, require further development. Technologies including tuneable-diode laser spectroscopy, carbon nanotubes, nano-crystalline Perovskite oxides and solid-polymer-electrolyte sensors are being considered in these products.

One of the challenges to ‘sniffer’ devices is accurately measuring alcohol vapour associated with the driver in an environment where external air flows, passengers and differences in breath patterns could influence the BAC reading. These problems are overcome by a ‘closed system environment’ characteristic of mouthpieces in breath test units.

Transdermal perspiration measurements

A similar technique to distant spectrometry is transdermal alcohol measurements, which uses

electrochemical sensors and operates on the premise that a portion of any alcohol present in the body is exuded through the skin via perspiration. BAC is estimated for a given amount of the vapour emitted by the skin. Unlike alcohol sniffers, transdermal perspiration measurements require contact between a sensor and the skin for a given amount of time; hence, contact needs to be established between a subject and the sensor pad. This can be a challenge in the vehicle setting.

While literature reports various companies using transdermal technology embedded in vehicle parts such as steering wheels to determine BAC readings (see below), there is also evidence of a greater degree of difficulty of obtaining accurate BAC readings from skin vapour via transdermal measurements compared to distant spectrometry (Hawthorne & Wojcik, 2006). One issue is the time delay between alcohol ingestion and detection at skin-level. It has been suggested that real-time estimation of BAC via skin measurement may be limited (Hlastala, 2009; Webster & Gabler, 2007). A more recent report however, describing the use of two transdermal alcohol measuring technologies (as ankle bracelets; i.e., Secure Continuous Remote Alcohol Monitoring, referred to as SCRAM devices) demonstrates that the devices, reliably monitor alcohol use by offenders (Martin, 2011). The reader is also referred to in research by Fell and McKnight (2013) who reported on the positive benefits of the SCRAM device by assessing the records of 250,000 US offenders. Transdermal devices use fuel cell technology.

Various Patents have been lodged with the United States Patent and Trademark Office that utilise

transdermal technology embedded in the vehicle steering wheel for continuous assessments (Figure 5.5) (for example, Brown & Minter, 2008). These are linked to an ignition interlock system, with continuous recordings taken. An increasing number of Patent applications have been made for similar technologies.

62 _{Source: Presentation by Pettersson, Håkan (October 20, 2010) ‘'KAIA Alcolås’ . pp.4 (of 14). Published by Autoliv Inc. available at}

Figure 5.5: Example of an integrated transdermal alcohol ignition interlock embedded within the steering wheel

Example - Alcohol ignition interlock system and method, US 7413047 B2 (Brown and Minter, 2008).

Eye movements

Alcohol affects eye movements (Baloh, Sharma, Moskowitz, & Griffith, 1979; Roche & King, 2010; Wilkinson & Purnell, 1974). Measuring eye movements in a vehicle setting is one means of determining the extent to which an individual is affected by alcohol. UK research linked eye movements to steering wheel movements, to demonstrate that a driver’s BAC can be estimated from this relationship (Marple-Horvat et al., 2008). The authors suggest that this knowledge can be applied to an automatic in-car detection system via an in-car eye movement detector linked to a steering analyser (Marple-Horvat et al., 2008). Research into intelligent vehicle-mounted alcohol detection systems based on eye-hand movements and eye-coordination are continuing (Fu-peng, Min-lan, & Zhang-ying, 2012; Lee et al., 2010; Mizuno, 2012).