General Remarkd on Methodology

The orientation and methods used in this study fall within the domain of current research in sociolinguistics (Labov 1966, 1972) and variation theory, (Labov and D.Sankoff 1979), (G. Sankoff 1980). The study m akes use of natural data, both recorded speech samples, as well as samples of historical texts.

A total of about 30 hours of tape for the synchronic data was used, with 3309 tokens of (ING). A total of about 650 pages of historical text was used, with 2623 tokens of - in g . In addition, data from another historical study on - In g were included, (Irwin 1967). Irwin’s sample represents another 700 pages of text with 1801 tokens compiled from her study. (For the details of Irwin’s data see Chapter Six, Section 6 .6 ).

1.3.1 The Vernacular

The concept of the vernacular has played an important role in sociolinguistics. It is som etimes viewed as an absolute notion, (Bernstein 1964a), and in other cases as a relative notion, (Hymes 1972). The latter implies that one person’s vernacular may be another person’s Sunday-best.

Labov (1966) defines the vernacular as speech which is the least-m onitored by the speaker. Labov (1972) argues that this type of language is best-suited to the study of language change, since it is the most free from the interference of self-conscious hypercorrection, and also reflects the language which the speaker uses most often.

This last assumption has relevance for the interview situation because the interview does n o t represent the everyday speech setting for most speakers, but is a situation conducive to creating self-conscious speech. The interviewer must therefore be continually vigilant of this fact, always striving to find ways of decreasing self-consciousness.

5

1.3.2 Interviewing and the Observer’s Paradox

The basic problem of obtaining natural, unmonitored speech in the presence of a tape recorder has been formulated by Labov as the Observer's P a rad ox, (Labov 1972). Because it is unethical to tape record speakers without their prior knowledge (all data in this study are based on recordings of which the speakers had full knowledge and agreem ent o f) , the interviewer is faced with the problem of how to minimize the effect the tape recorder has on making the speaker self-conscious.

Labov and his collaborators have developed a set of techniques over a number of years designed to reduce this problem. One method is the use of m odules designed to move the speaker’s focus of attention away from speech and onto topics which have been shown to be of interest to him or her. This of course will depend on the speaker and the particular values of interest to the speech community involved.

In this study the topics included in the interviews for the British and American speakers are: experiences with the family and neighborhood, growing up, dangerous life-threatening experiences, fate and the supernatural, fashion, childhood games, professional sports, life in the community, and schooling. Using such question modules not only provides a partial means for controlling the contents of the interview, but also provides a way for the interviewer to control the format of his or her own questions. Both of these make the data across speakers more com parable. (See Chapter Four, Section 4.1 for details on the synchronic data base).

Another way of lessening the impact of the tape recorder is to have group interviews, thereby creating a social context more familiar to the speaker. The two types of group interviews occurring in this study are (1) husband and wife, or family members together, and (2) peer groups, either young children or adolescents. The group situation provides an additional means for overcoming the tape recorder in that turn-taking among participant interviewees becom es relevant, and, once initial shyness is overcom e, the

6

speakers often resort to conversational tactics designed to either maintain the turn, or take it from another speaker. The effect is to turn the speakers' attention towards natural conversational etiquette they use in everyday situations, and away from the more unique, awkward etiquette prevalant in taped interviews.

1.3.3 Problems with Approaching Vernacular Language in Historical Data

The means for obtaining or for approaching vernacular speech in historical data are considerably less precise than for the modern interview situation. The complete dependency on written language is the first consideration. Although the problem of the Observer’s Paradox is not of concern, the writing process provides the writer with greater opportunities for controlling language than does spontaneous speech, because it is always possible to go back and edit what has been written.

It is generally assumed that writing reflects greater formality in style than speech. (Labov 1972), (Kroch and Hindle 1982). Vet if attention is paid to the genre of the writing and the educational background of the writer, it is possible to locate written sources which approximate the more vernacular spoken language than other sources, (Arnaud 1982), (Dees 1971).

The historical data used in this study are drawn in large part from personal letters and diaries, rather than religious and political writings. In addition, a small sample of dialogue from plays is used. (See Chapter Five, Section 5.1 for details on the historical data b as e). The evidence from occasional spellings is important for a topic such as the development of the (ING) variable; locating mate ,als which reflect non-standarized spelling form s, especially in the earliest materials is very useful. Toon (1983) provides an excellent discussion of the problems and procedures for collecting historical materials which approach the vernacular.

7