CHAPTER 3 THE THEORETICAL CONSTRUCTS OF
3.3 IDS as complex systems
Whilst the factors facing and causing complexity have been outline here, what can be
understood is that the IDS is in fact a complex system, consisting of complex and
complicated sub‐systems. To make such a statement, opposed to alignment to obvious
views on temporality and extensive human interactions across a programme
environment, alignment is made to the definitive characteristics of complex systems as
set out by Lucas (2000). Bertelsen (2003a), in defining construction as a complex system,
a complex and dynamic endeavour by summating the characteristics into three groups
of autonomous agents, undefined values, and non‐linearity.
Brockman and Kahkonen (2012) (expanding on work focusing on complexity in
megaprojects by Brockman) define contextualising project complexity across five
dimensions of task, social, cultural, operative and cognitive complexity. What one can
glean from this in relation to IDS, is that definition and exploration of an infrastructure
project must be from a number of perspectives and definition of issues and wider
complexity cannot merely be done in terms of task definition (Gidado, 1996). The result
is the exploration of these complex delivery systems through the use of a deeper
understanding of complex systems theory, and the application, definition and
understanding of the governance structures for those delivery systems.
3.3.1 Dealing with complex delivery through project teams; their expectations, action and learning
Packendorff (1995) presents that project research should consider components such as
culture, environmental relationships, conception and longitudinal processes rather than
as goal fulfilling subsystems of a strategically aware super‐system. He adds that
researching the temporary organisation (opposed to the tool) must be perceived across
three levels of (1) expectation: based on previous knowledge of project types for
example and therefore perceiving projects as institutional constructs, (2) action: of
humans within a project leading to outcomes, and (3) learning: such as how work and
action leads to both organisational and individual learning, in contrast to the plan,
control, evaluation foci of considering projects as tools. Importantly, he identifies that
studies into the action component of a project can be divided into longitudinal case
studies habitually employing action research, and case studies focusing on the
completion of projects. Studying the project as a system of action facilitates study on
what is actually happening rather than what is meant to happen.
In the study of action activities within project organisations, Packendorff highlights that
investigation into the paradox of project culture is needed. Specifically, the contrasting
and the enhancing of participation and workplace democracy through the structuring of
temporary organisational settings leading to the departure from ordinary structures.
Additionally, Sodergren (1994) identifies that the removal of people from usual routines
and setting them to an unorthodox task with unknown individuals facilitates change
within the permanent organisation.
Cicmil and Hodgson (2006) identify that the project as a focal unit of organisational
operation is considered a suitable medium through which to control endeavours in a
turbulent environment. They also act as an appropriate way of stimulating learning
environments and enhancing creativity in the delivery of complex products. Indeed, the
‘projectification of society’ has focused on the rationalising of organisational activity and
has had significant impact on issues such as workplace identity, inter‐subjective
interaction and increased control over individuals through efficiency and performance.
Undeniably, the summation of the Scandinavian School of thought by Packendorff
(1995) highlights that the universal belief in the foundations of project management
thinking is fundamentally flawed, and that there is a distinct need to move away from
the project (as a tool) and focus on the temporary organisation. The narrow application
of conventional approaches to the management of projects is commented upon by
Alvesson and Deetz (2000, p5‐6) who advocate the adoption of a more critical stance
incorporating an array of theoretical lenses:
There is considerable agreement that conventional, universal statements of what
management is about and managers do – planning, organising, coordinating and
controlling – do not tell us very much about organisational reality, which is often
messy, ambiguous, fragmented and political in character.
Huczynski and Buchanan (2001) identify that conventional approaches to organisational
and management research have exposed management techniques directed toward
empowerment, teamwork and flexibility to in fact be operating ‘covert tools of
manipulation and exploitation’ in order to deal with problem solving and decision
making issues. As an organisation inherently requires the design of operations by a
that goal is in accordance with the definitional thinking of TMOs by Packendorff, De
Blois, Cicmil and Hodgsen and Stringer. Daft (2009) identifies that organisations are
social entities, goal oriented and designed (deliberately) in connection with their
external environment. He advises that the design of Socio‐Technical Systems (the
inherent structure of TMOs) is dependent on three components, the social system, the
technical system and the design of their joint optimisation.