CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.2 Basis of the study
5.2.1 Conducting research in the social world
5.2.1.1 The nature of method and methodology
Ison (2008) presents that in thinking about method we are concerned with a given,
something which is set much like a manual or recipe. He adds however that when we
consider methodology, we should be concerned with specifics and the particular use of
tools for a defined setting. Furthermore, Ison outlines that a methodology is not a
'thing', but something that arises from what is done, and is thus the result of inquiry
where neither theory nor practice take precedence. This view is shared by Wilson (1990)
who also sees the methodology as representing a set of guidelines to allow research to
resolve particular problems. The methodology encompasses all the components of
research however, inclusive of philosophies and techniques, with Wilson adding that
methods and tools will be dependent on the methodology selected. Dainty (2008) adds
that in construction management research, the research methodology in social enquiry
represents far more than the methods adopted in a study, and also encompass the
rationale and the philosophical assumptions that underlie that study.
The consequence of this is the design of relevant research methods to investigate
problems, and thus collect, analyse and interpret that data accordingly as part of a
research strategy (Wilson, 1990; Dainty, 2008; Saunders et al., 2012). To provide the
following discussion with an element of consistency within what is an often conflicting
body of knowledge regarding methodology in the social world, it is commonplace to give
credence to a particular taxonomy, such as that by Saunders et al. (2012), Gray (2004),
Meredith et al. (1989), Dainty (2008) or Blaikie (2010) for example. For the purposes
here, the work of Mackenzie and Knipe (2006) who present the methodology in terms of
a research process (or journey) is of value, with expansions of particular themes of that
journey being expanded upon here to reflect my position in respect to explanations
presented by Burrell and Morgan (1979). This framework is highlighted via Figure 5A,
with its subsequent components and corresponding methodological decisions being
outlined as part of this chapter.
Figure 5A ‐ Selection of the research framework
(Source ‐ Author)
NOTE: Yellow are primary selections, with Orange representing supporting elements
5.2.1.2 Research Philosophy
The philosophy of research frames the nature of knowledge as well as the manner in
which one develops it (Saunders et al., 2012). With a number of facets, a research
philosophy outlines the manner in which one views and understands the world and
especially sets the guidelines through which one understands it. A suitable medium
through which to do this has been characterised through nomothetic and ideographic
ideas about knowledge creation, characterised by Holden and Lynch (2004) who present
that the modern research paradigm is polarised by subjective vs. objective approaches
to science within our world. They frame this polarised view by identifying four
assumptions that make up research philosophy based on ontology, epistemology,
and Morgan (1979), with an element of development in accordance with Saunders et al.
(2012), Fellows and Liu (2009) and Holden and Lynch (2004) for example, the continuum
between these polar views is presented via the following:
Figure 5B ‐ Adaptation of the nature of social science
(Source ‐ Author)
Ontology is concerned with the nature of the world (Coghlan and Brannick, 2005),
whereby reality can be perceived as being objective (and a form of externality to human
beings), or whether the understanding of it is via our own awareness and consciousness
and thus subjective (Burrell and Morgan, 1979). Epistemology, or 'the grounds for
knowledge' (Coghlan and Brannick, 2005), is polarised by Interpretive or Positivist
viewpoints, and is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge. The issue here is
whether one sees knowledge as an objective body of content or a more subjective
experience of one's own reality (Sexton and Barrett, 2003). Epistemological and
Ontological considerations are linked, as one view of the world intrinsically requires a
and Usher (1996) believed most researchers to hold these relative standpoints tacitly.
Epistemology, from a more classical viewpoint, focuses on the ability to arrive at a
particular conclusion through the use of objectivity. This is the basis upon which the
natural sciences are built and was seen for many years as the good grounds from which
to judge the validity of knowledge claims (Farren, 2005). Usher (1996) adds that more
empiricist epistemologies believe that a truth can be known with no contradictory
explanations. He goes on to warn of the dangers of natural science approaches to
educational or social research, with the underlying ontological assumptions of order
representing a stumbling block to the understanding of an array of vantage points. Burke
Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) present that this vantage point dichotomy is
characterised by quantitative and qualitative purists, with Mixed Methods Research
(MMR) and its philosophical partner pragmatism representing a more appropriate
research foundation.
While Lincoln and Guba (1994) may view that questions of methodology are secondary
to ones of epistemology and ontology, and with a proclivity of debates being around the
polarisation between positivist and interpretivist standpoints, Saunders et al. (2012) add
that an either/or debate may in fact be impractical in practice. The pragmatic view
places the research question at the centre of the debate regarding research selection
and suggests that certain approaches will be better than others to suit situational
specifics. They add further that the pragmatic view, leading towards a mixed methods
position involving both quantitative and qualitative methods is not only possible, but
highly appropriate in one study. This places a pragmatic view outside the confines of the
two ‘poles’ and instead raises the issue of the appropriate use of each given the research
aims. Cameron (2011) via her presentation of the ‘Five P’s’ of MMR in the form of
paradigms, pragmatism, praxis, proficiency and publishing, suggests that MMR has
begun to be considered as the third methodological movement. What this highlights, as
with the use of pragmatism in avoidance of pointless concepts debate outlined by
Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998), is that the pragmatic vantage point affords researchers to
focus on scenario appropriateness, rather than rigorous followership of method then
(pragmatism) presents itself as an extension of historical empiricism, but with this
fundamental difference, that it does not insist upon antecedent phenomena but
upon consequent phenomena; not upon the precedents but upon the possibilities
of action. And this change in point of view is almost revolutionary in its
consequences.
John Dewey, 1925 (in Dewey, Hickman and Alexander, 1998)
With regard to our human nature, the fulcrum of this debate is the ‘model of man’
reflected within the voluntarism – determinism discussion centred on our socio‐cultural
assumptions. Relating to our perceived ideas of the bonds between the environment
and ourselves, this essentially ranges from active to passive accordingly. The issue here
is the manner in which we gather data and understand the environment upon which our
concerns relate; thus, do we initiate situations through our actions and interventions
(active) or respond to external factors (passive). Burrell and Morgan (1979) argue that
through either implicit or explicit means, one must make clear their views relating to
voluntary and situational factors that account for the activities of people within social
settings. Such assumptions it is argued are essential in the utilisation, understanding and
formation of social‐scientific theories about the relationships between ‘man’ and
society. When we consider methodology however, we centre on the dichotomy between
nomothetic and ideographic (often spelt with an ‘idio’ in psychology for example)
knowledge creation. Burrell and Morgan (1979) present one of the more concise
descriptions of this debate so far as it dictates the nature of how one ascertains
information and creates knowledge (see Jaccard and Dittus, 1990 for example). The
nomothetic approach to the social world is more akin to the application of systematic
process and techniques, using protocols and testing, and is by its nature likely
quantitative. One can make a clear link to the natural sciences in this arena and one
might find nomothetic examples of social science knowledge creation in projects that
aim to align to the natural sciences as a way of creating what is considered valid to the
The ideographic approach contrastingly suggests that one can only fully understand a
situation by obtaining first‐hand knowledge of the subject under investigation (Burrell
and Morgan, 1979). The consequence is immersion of the researcher into the chosen
setting, getting inside of situations, allowing one’s subject to reveal its characteristics
during the process of investigation. The ideographic creation of knowledge suggests
however that the formation of what is known is inherently personal and based on a
creation of reality subjectively held with that person. To subsequently discover
something within this domain requires action within the social world, and thus one can
categorise objectivity, generalisation and the creation of universal truths with
nomothetic knowledge creation, while ideographic knowledge creation centres on the
human and the creation of localised knowledge specific to the complexities of the
human / social scenario (Dainty, 2008). An important aspect to this debate begins then
to focus on the personal values a researcher in essence ‘brings with them’ into the
research and how one translates a given scenario. This is characterised by axiology.
Axiology is concerned with our judgments about value, and while it may include the
values we are embossed with, it is concerned more with the process of social enquiry we
employ (Saunders et al., 2012). Kafle (2013, p.194) makes reference to how our:
Values provide the standard for the evaluation of epistemological and ontological
claims. In reference to research literature, axiology also refers to the involvement
of the researcher’s values and opinion in the process of knowledge generation.
Thus as we challenge ourselves with regard to positioning along the subjective /
objective dimension, we also begin to ask to what extent we shall incorporate and judge
our interaction within the social world via our own values. The Hermeneutic Cycle begins
to play a critical role in the understanding of preconceptions and prejudices, through
which we understand, from the false ones we may misunderstand (Gadamer, 1976). The
preconceptions of the involved parties in social research, and the views embodied by the
researcher play a significant role in the judgment and structure of social research. The
nature of the values form either value‐free or value‐laden perspectives, with objectivists