Implementing quality processes during data generation

Birks and Mills (2011:47) describe factors which influence quality in grounded theory. The researcher implemented quality processes through communication skills and procedural precision during the conducted interviews.

2.8.3.1 Communication skills

During the unstructured interviews the researcher listened carefully to the information shared by the participants. Van Staden, Marx and Erasmus-Kritzinger (2005:43) describe three types of listening, namely attentive, critical and appreciative listening,

which also were used by the researcher. Attentive listening enabled the researcher to listen to the central idea and concentrate on the content of the message. Critical listening was important to establish the intention of the message and the researcher asked questions to make sure she understood and interpreted the messages correctly. Appreciative listening enabled the researcher to listen first and then react, and indicated that the researcher understood the message. Active listening means that verbal and non-verbal feedback is provided to the participants, and that the qualitative interview questions are based on what the participant has said (Morrison et al 2012:71; Van Staden et al 2005:43). The researcher used non-verbal feedback such as nods, positive facial expressions and eye contact. Open-ended questions were used to allow the participants to elaborate, explain and discuss in their own words.

Probes prompted the participants to respond in a more specific and in-depth way to enhance rapport and indicate to the participants that the researcher was interested in understanding their views (Brink et al 2012:158; Kelly 2006:152; Lichtman 2014:268; Sheppard 2004:140; Tod 2006:346; Van Staden et al 2005:43; Warren 2002:86). When the researcher needed more clarity about something that was said, probing was used to engage the participants in more in-depth explanations. Through probing the researcher maintained focus in the interviews and determined whether the information and concepts were correctly interpreted. Probes assisted with the exploration and clarification of information to gain rich in-depth meanings and understanding of the particular way in which the participants considered trust in nursing education. Interviewing, listening, probing and questioning skills equipped the researcher to conduct the data generation process through in-depth interviews.

2.8.3.2 Procedural precision

The researcher implemented procedural precision to ensure quality in the study. Pilot interviews were conducted before the data collection commenced. The researcher used Birks and Mills’s (2011:38-39) guide to ensure procedural precision, namely maintaining an audit trail, managing data and resources and demonstrating procedural logic. Memoing and field notes also played an important role in ensuring a quality process.

2.8.3.2.1 Maintaining an audit trail

An audit trail is a record of steps regarding the researcher’s way of analysis of data and thoughts of the researcher throughout the research (King 2012:433). All the decisions, such as what to probe for clarity in the subsequent interviews, were recorded to ensure clarity. The researcher kept a log book and recorded events and decisions during and after conducting interviews.

2.8.3.2.2 Managing data and resources

A systematic method and mechanisms were planned. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed, stored, analysed and reviewed. The detail of how the interviews were conducted, recorded, transcribed and finalised is described later in this chapter.

2.8.3.2.3 Demonstrating procedural logic

The correct application of a grounded theory design safeguarded procedural logic (Birks & Mills 2011:39). The process of the research was logical and the researcher kept track of the processes in the study and frequently returned to original data to ensure coding and analysis were done logically.

2.8.3.3 Memoing and field notes – the cornerstone of quality

Memoing is the process of keeping records, and recording thoughts, feelings, and insights in relation to the research (Birks & Mills 2011:40). The use of memos is critical and important references in the promotion of quality and rigor in grounded theory during the investigatory process (Charmaz 2014:170; Kenealy 2012:414). Rennie (2006:65) refers to Glaser and Strauss (1967) who describe theoretical memos as a method to record the analyst’s preconceptions and hunches about the phenomenon. Memos were utilised to maintain an audit trail throughout the study. A logbook was used to note thoughts, feelings, insights, problems and conceptual ideas. Memos focused on the coding and the emergence of possible codes. Advanced memos included the researcher’s constant comparison, mind and concept maps, mapping of activities and possible relations between codes, categories and sub-categories (Annexures K, L and M). The memos and mapping of concepts assisted with analytical thinking to interrogate

data with the aim to develop concrete and abstract concepts for the construction of the model. Different types of field notes were taken by the researcher based on observation of participants and reaction of colleagues regarding the topic of interest. Polit and Beck (2016:729) defined field notes as unstructured observations made by the researcher and their interpretation. Field notes were made after the interviews to reflect what the researcher had seen and heard during the interview and the data that had been obtained. The researcher made personal reflective notes about her own personal experiences and feelings during the study (Annexure K). These field notes on the different NEIs were noted and contributed to the reflexivity of the researcher.

2.8.3.4 Reflexivity

Reflexivity challenges the opinion that researchers can be neutral and it is an awareness and critical self-reflection on the research process and interpretation of data, as well as on how biases, values and experiences of the researcher affect the research processes and outcomes (Charmaz 2014:155; Creswell 2013:216; Lichtman 2014:255; Tietze 2012:57; Topping 2006:165). Haynes (2012:73) construes that reflexivity enables the researcher to think about thoughts, and distinguishes between reflection and reflexivity in the research process. Reflection is a mirror effect of observation or examining how things are done. Reflexivity is more complex, involving thinking about experiences and questioning the way of doing. Inherent in the research process, reflexivity should be actively implemented to eliminate the possibility of subjectivity. Highly reflexive research increases the validation of the study which includes the monitoring of and reflection on all aspects of the research from the formulation of study ideas until the publication of findings (Davies et al 2011:175).

The researcher was aware that reflection and reflexivity were essential elements in the research and throughout the research process the researcher acknowledged and reflected about diversities, differences and similarities of how participants viewed trust in nursing education. After each interview the researcher reflected on the interviews conducted. Throughout the study the researcher implemented strategies to increase a reflexive awareness which fostered self-assessment, self-awareness, critical thinking and analysis. An essay or summary was written about her beliefs, assumptions and presuppositions about the topic of trust in the nursing education environment. The researcher returned to this throughout the study and reviewed the research questions to

determine if the focus of the study was maintained. The thoughts and feelings of the researcher were noted in a logbook. Memos supported the researcher to identify deficiencies in the interviews. When the researcher transcribed the face-to-face and focus group interviews, she listened carefully for and noted voice and mood changes of the participants.

A reflexive approach was important for the researcher to understand her own experiences and views. Through reflexivity the researcher limited biases to take a stance about all aspects in the study to enhance the credibility of the study.

2.8.3.5 The process of bracketing

Streubert and Carpenter (2011:27) state that bracketing is iterative and part of the reflexive journey. Bracketing involves preparing, evaluating and systematic reflection, which is a cognitive process during which the researcher identifies and puts aside own preconceived beliefs, judgements and opinions (Lichtman 2014:115). The researcher deliberately bracketed any possible expectations, thoughts, feelings and perceptions that might influence her perception of trust in the nursing education environment. Bracketing was also applied during the preliminary literature review. The researcher set preconceived ideas aside through reflexivity and field notes. Thus, the researcher was constantly aware of her own beliefs and kept it separate from the information the participants shared during the interviews.

2.8.3.6 Intuiting

Intuiting refers to the researcher becoming the tool for data collection (Streubert & Carpenter 2011:81), remains open to the meanings (Polit & Beck 2016:472), and develops an awareness of the views of the participants (Brink et al 2012:122). The researcher then collects data and listens to the participants’ views.

Utilising field notes, memos and transcribed interviews promoted the researcher’s awareness of the particular way in which participants considered trust and trusting relationships in nursing education. The researcher explored the meaning participants attached to and their views on trust as reflected in the data to create a reality of trust in

the nursing environment. Intuition contributed to the researcher’s knowledge and skills to improve quality and rigor.

Data collection and analysis started from the first face-to-face interview and focus group interview. Data collection and analysis were done concurrently in a cyclic process as indicated in Figure 2.2, according to the processes discussed above and taking cognisance of the factors mentioned.