Lambda Lowering

upstream of Rd 7 bridge.

LEGEND

Figure 8: Water sampling stations on the Opa reservoir

LEGEND

Built-upmare Area

Figure 9: Bed sediment sampling stations on the Opa reservoir Opa reservoir water quality

We sampled the reservoir's water at several locations (1- 15; Figure 8) along and across the thalweg. The samples were subsequently analyzed for a suite of determinants including heavy metals at the CERD, OAU, Ile-Ife. The concentrations of the determinants in the surface water of the reservoir and at the various stations are

itations on the Opa reservoir

:veral locations (1 - 15; Figure 8) e samples were subsequently including heavy metals at the tions of the determinants in the d at the various stations are

presented in Table 4. When compared with fresh water quality standards and the w . H . 0 . ' ~ and other international drinking water quality standards, the concentrations of cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) at some locations in Opa reservoir are significantly higher than the maximum allowable (.003 m a ) . These locations, marked as 12 and 15, are near the reservoir head, and the outlet of a river draining the Mbabi Mbayo area.

It should be pointed out that processes at standard water treatment plants such as ours cannot remove all impurities from water before delivery to the public. That means that drinking water derived from sources containing obnoxious chemicals will continue to contain most of them even after treatment. This explains and justifies the rationale behind a cardinal rule in water supply engineering that drinking water must always be taken from the best quality source. Anything less could result in unnecessary risks to public health (Akhionbare 2009). We may wish to consider that heavy metals such as lead and cadmium cause very serious harmful effects to man if ingested, even in very minute quantities (Ngaha 1980). A main symptom of chronic exposure to cd2+ is renal tubular impairment followed by extensive proteinuria. It is also believed that it is involved in hypertension as highly elevated urinary and renal cd2+concentrations have been found in hypertensive subjects. pb2+ interferes with various biochemical and physiological systems in the body. Acute lead toxicity is manifested by its presence throughout the body and the effects are mainly seen as anaemia, kidney dysfunction, central nervous system damage leading to mental retardation and even death.

We did not analyze for the effect of plastics flushed into the reservoir on its water quality. But Fatoki and Ogunfowokan (1993) examined waters from water treatment plants in SW Nigeria, including the OAU Water Treatment plant for the presence of phthalate esters. They found among others that dimethyl phthalate ester (DMP) had a concentration in the Opa reservoir of 462 mg/L.

DMP in rivers sampled ranged from 18

-

462 mg/L. The results also showed that DMP in tap waters ranged from 91

-

323 mg/L, and that there is no marked difference between DMP in tap water

42

and river water, implying that water treatment does not remove this very harmful substance from the feed water. Similarly, most of the toxic matter in riverlreservoir waters are not sequestered or removed by the treatment process. The DMP values reported by Fatoki and Ogunfowokan (1993) for the Opa reservoir and water from the OAU Water Treatment plant are from water samples collected between 1990 and 1991. This was when Ile Ife had relatively little negative impact on the reservoir, and long before 201 1 and the opening up of the weed chocked R. Esimirin channel into the Opa reservoir. Even then, the values are much higher than those reported for polluted rivers in western industrialized countries and lo5 higher than the 3 pg/L US EPA standard criteria for protection of aquatic life.

We also cored the bed of the reservoir at 14 different locations (see Figure 9) to obtain bed sediment samples, which were analyzed for heavy metals, among others using the Nuclear Accelerator at the CERD. The results are presented in Table 5.

cd2'was not detected in any of the bed sediment samples, while pb2+ was only in trace quantities (lower than the level of detection) at two locations (4 and 5 on Figure 9) though there were heavy loadings of K, Mn, Fe and Zr at some locations. All these locations are not near the Opa Treat Plant's intake chamber. This is a major advantage to the University if the reservoir is to be desilted through dredging to restore storage capacity, and clean out sequestered muck. This is because accumulation of trace metals, radionuclides, organic matter and toxic material on colloidal interfaces being reversible; materials adsorbed on bed sediments may be released into the water column (Stumm and Morgan 1981;

p672) through re-mobilization of contaminants during bed perturbation caused by dredging activities. The potential for integration of re-mobilized contaminants into drinking water would be very high duration such perturbations since water will continue to be pumped from the reservoir into the treatment plant.

But if the reservoir is to be desilted and cleaned out, there would be need to ensure that sediments and city refuse are permanently kept out through the construction of check dams

treatment does not remove this d water. Similarly, most of the iters are not sequestered or The DMP values reported by Ir the Opa reservoir and water dant are from water samples

.

This was when Ile Ife had the reservoir, and long before

!d chocked R. Esimirin channel ne values are much higher than :rs in western industrialized

ug/L US EPA standard criteria the reservoir at 14 different bed sediment samples, which mong others using the Nuclear iults are presented in Table 5.

e bed sediment samples, while ,wer than the level of detection) re 9) though there were heavy ne locations. All these locations intake chamber. This is a major le reservoir is to be desilted rage capacity, and clean out : accumulation of trace metals, d toxic material on colloidal als adsorbed on bed sediments imn (Sturnm and Morgan 198 1 ;

of contaminants during bed

; activities. The potential for aminants into drinking water

I perturbations since water will iervoir into the treatment plant.

: desilted and cleaned out, there sediments and city refuse are

ie construction of check dams

across the channels of those tributaries that bring the most sediment and refuse into the reservoir. This could be readily achieved through the use of gabions. These will filter the water and keep the sediment and refuse on the city side. But the impoundment and backwater created by such dam on the Esimirin may flood sections of the town. This may effectively stall any construction since EIAs for such deleterious check dams may not be approved. The size of the dams will therefore have to be carefully considered. Further, there will be need to regularly remove chocking polyethylene matter from the upstream faces of the gabions to enable continuing filtration of river water. The sediment sequestered behind the check dams will also have to be routinely dredged out so that the dams will not be obliterated. The university may make some gains from the sale of the dredge spoil if the cost of removing the trash embedded in the sands is not prohibitive.

A solution to non-removal of objectionable matter during standard water treatment process is the recourse to water treatment technologies such as the Ion Exchange Membrane Bioreactor (IEMB), which incorporates pollutant transport through an ion exchange membrane by Donnan dialysis with biological removal of toxic heavy metal and other pollutants (Oehmen et al. 2006).

These are however very expensive.

The situation in the Opa catchment is rather ubiquitous in Nigeria, and most probably in the developing world. Akoto et al.

(2008) examined the As, Cr, Cd, Ni, Pb, Mn, Co, Cu, Fe and Zn concentrations in the waters of the Owabi reservoir, Kumasi, Ghana. This reservoir provides drinking water to Kumasi metropolis and its environs. Human activities found within the area include metal fabrication, auto garages, residential, farming, road construction as well as municipal waste disposal. The results showed that the water of the Owabi reservoir was unfit for drinking purposes though it continues to be so utilized. Tijani et al.

(2007) found high concentration of trace metals such as Pb, Zn, Cd and high degree of anthropogenic contamination of water and bottom sediments of the Eleiyele reservoir, Ibadan.

During the colonial era when many water supply dams and reservoirs were constructed, the urban space was small and limited.

Further, the catchments of the reservoirs were protected by forests.

Since the end of that era, population increase and re-distribution have pushed city limits in the direction of the reservoirs, and in many cases, encircled the reservoirs. Zoning controls that were enacted during the colonial era appear to have been ignored. Thus for instance, the catchment of one of Ibadan city's water supply reservoirs (Eleyele; 7'26' N 3'52' E) built in 1942 was virtually covered with planted forests protected and managed by the State Forestry Department. But protection controls have either been abandoned or are unenforced. Consequently, most of the catchment is now covered by poor urban environment with absolutely ineffective waste management. Un-enlightened urbanites even dispose trash into an arm of the reservoir abutting the Eleyele- Polytechnic Road (Tijani et al. 2007; Olubode et al. 201 1).

hen many water supply dams and rban space was small and limited.

ervoirs were protected by forests.

ation increase and re-distribution irection of the reservoirs, and in voirs. Zoning controls that were ppear to have been ignored. Thus ne of Ibadan city's water supply 2' E) built in 1942 was virtually itected and managed by the State cction controls have either been

~nsequently, most of the catchment an environment with absolutely Un-enlightened urbanites even re reservoir abutting the Eleyele- 307; Olubode et al. 201 1).

Table 5: Opa reservoir's bed sediment chemistry

T -Trace

ND - Not detectable

The reference background employed i s that of average concentration of basement rocks of southwestern Nigeria, as compiled by Tijani et al. (2006). This reference background constitutes the average composition of weathered regolith over the different rock types and its application as reference background is based on the fact that such weathered regolith are source materials of the erosional wash-out and runoff sediments transported from the catchment area into the drainage system and the lake environment.

Reservoirs being sinks for upstream sediments and other detritus are naturally ephemeral features on the earth surface. But even before the total loss of the reservoir storage, water treatment costs could become so prohibitive as to outstrip the benefits derivable from the continued use of the waters of the reservoir. It has therefore become apparent that so long as urban expansion occurs and engulfs water supply reservoir catchments; urban landscapes remain poorly developed and managed, urban and state authorities do not have the capacity to or do not concern themselves with environmental and waste management, and the populace cursorily dispose waste of all types in drains and river channels, reservoirs such as our beloved Opa are inexorably on their way to an accelerated demise.

The University should therefore begin to seriously consider the development of alternative sources of water supply within its estate, such as the Shasha River. The river however drains the Osu area and part of its catchment within the University Estate has been designated as industrial park and housing zone. There is therefore need for appropriate catchment management to facilitate sustainability of any new reservoir's integrity. Such management will incorporate strict zoning controls. If such controls are not urgently established, as urbanization engulfs the catchment of the new reservoir, it too like the Opa reservoir will inexorably be on its way to an accelerated demise.

But, given the need to forestall a coritinuous case of 'build and abandon', it would be essential that specific land use zoning controls are built into the development of the river's catchment.

These controls describe the restrictions on land uses in specific locations and deter or segregate emergent land uses that may not be compatible with desired ones. The goals are environmental sustainability and protection of the integrity and sustainability of desired land use e.g. water supply reservoir. A continuing successful example of the application of this type of policy is that of New York City's water supply reservoirs, which has enabled the city to have a low cost filtration-free water supply system. It should be noted that the city's water supply is based on a system of

well-protected catchments and reservoirs built in them. The city has 90% of the catchments covered with forests and seeks to restrict development in them. A consequence is that the city has the largest unfiltered surface storage and supply system in the USA, which supplies drinking water to 9 million people in the greater New York City area, plus another one million tourists and commuters (EPA 2001; Germain et al. 2007).

CONCLUSION

Our discussions thus far have been on a major part of my research activities. There are others that have not directly been on catchment studies. There are also a few that had to be suspended for lack of equipment. A most painful one is on 'an isotope study of the natural waters along two SW-NE traverses in SW Nigeria'.

The study aimed at assessing the contribution of local evaporation to incident rainfall and the significance of 'local' water recycling, and water samples had been meticulously collected. We needed environmental isotope data of the waters, and the equipment required for analysis is the Mass Spectrometer, which was then not available anywhere in Nigeria, nor in English-speaking West Africa. Efforts to secure analysis overseas elicited conditions that would impede attainment of study objectives, but provide general data to the laboratory owners. The university may therefore need to augment the capacity of our Central Laboratory as already canvassed by a number of Inaugural lecturers.

Mr. Vice Chancellor, please permit me at this juncture to express my gratitude to the One and the others who have ensured and worked that I attain this present status. First, all gratitude goes to the Lord God through whom and in whose support and grace I have been able to get thus far. Next, I need to note the contribution of my late father Mr. Thomas 0. Ogunkoya who in 1975 travelled to Abeokuta where I was teaching after NYSC, to show me the University of Ife Post Graduate School advert and did all to encourage me to apply. It is the success of that application that led to my being a member of this great University community since

rrvoirs built in them. The city .ed with forests and seeks to Insequence is that the city has i_ee and supply system in the ter to 9 million people in the nother one million tourists and al. 2007).

on a major part of my research have not directly been on

1 few that had to be suspended

~ f u l one is on 'an isotope study :-NE traverses in SW Nigeria'.

~ntribution of local evaporation mce of 'local' water recycling, :ulously collected. We needed e waters, and the equipment ectrometer, which was then not lor in English-speaking West verseas elicited conditions that objectives, but provide general :niversity may therefore need to entral Laboratory as already

lecturers.

: permit me at this juncture to .d the others who have ensured t status. First, all gratitude goes 3. in whose support and grace I

, I need to note the contribution gunkoya who in 1975 travelled

, after NYSC, to show me the School advert and did all to :cess of that application that led at University community since

1975. I also need to particularly acknowledge the prayerful support of my late mother, and the encouragement of my brother and sisters in getting my life in order more so at times of imminent derailment. I also take this opportunity to express profound gratitude to my mentors, academic and spiritual, Professor J.O.

Adejuwon, Prof. L.K. Jeje, and Prof. A.M.A. Imevbore.

Finally, to my wife Opeyemi and the mighty ones God gave us to nurture on His behalf, for the love and abiding support.

Mr. Vice Chancellor, Principal Officers, distinguished ladies and gentlemen, thank you very much for your attention.

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