LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION

The subject of this research is within the context of students in higher education, so in this section, a summary of learning theory is given, to provide the context for the team projects as learning experiences, within which students may gain team working skills. Although the term “learning” in difficult to define, most learning theorists agreed that learning is “a process by which behaviour is changed, shaped or controlled”, (Knowles 1990:13), but Bruner went further to suggest that learning is “…growth, development of competencies, and fulfilment of potential”, (ibid:13), which places more emphasis on intellectual development and acquiring skills. Learning is not seen in itself, but the products of learning are observed, in what people say, write or do. Education is “activity undertaken… to effect changes in the knowledge, skill and attitudes of individuals, groups or communities” (Knowles 1990:10). Knowles definitions apply to adults, so as higher education is aimed at post-compulsory participants, mainly adults, who may have entered university directly from school, or may be more mature (defined as over 21 years of age), these definitions are taken to apply to this research.

Learning is far more complex than any of the early theories suggest, but a framework of theory, such as one proposed by Dyke at al. (2007), based on the characteristics of learning may be helpful. They summarised the theories in a framework, including behaviourist, cognitive, constructivism (cognitive and social), experiential (activity

based) and situated learning, of which constructivism, experiential and situated are most relevant to the learning experience of a team project. Constructivist learning is under the control of the learner, and emerges in terms of the setting and purpose of the learning, a major component of adult learning (Vygotsky 1978). Experiential and situated learning theories emphasise the importance of the context in learning, and making use of previous experience of learners upon which new knowledge can be constructed.

Learning may also be viewed as bipolar, comprising two metaphors for learning: learning as acquisition or learning as participation (Sfard 1998). The acquisition metaphor refers to learning facts, usually related to the context of the learning, whilst the participation metaphor refers to learning as being a part of an activity, in order to gain experience of using learned material. Hodkinson and Macleod (2007) add construction (or formation) and becoming as a desired outcome of the learning process. However, much of the learning of humans takes place in a social situation, and observing others is one way of learning rules, skills, strategies and so on, the basis of “social cognition”, or cognitive learning (Schunk 2000:24). Thus imitation of others to reproduce the observed behaviour, as in apprenticeships, is applicable to learning about using practical skills, which can be effected in student team projects.

Constructivist learning is based on building up new knowledge onto existing knowledge, through practical activity, such as problem or discovery based learning, and was first recognised by Dewey (1944). Learners build up their own mental structures as they progress, so all learners will have unique cognitive structures. This takes place within a particular environment, and other proponents have emphasised the social context within which the building of cognitive structures takes place, and the significance of collaboration to build up knowledge. So relationships between others help to shape the structures, and communication is important for developing or constructing knowledge (Dyke et al. 2007).

Experiential learning is not always recognised as a separate theory of learning, but does form a separate category in the framework by Dyke et al. (2007) In this theory previous experience is a foundation for learning, and experience is transformed into knowledge, skills, attitudes and emotions. Within the context of problem based

learning, there is activity and reflection to bridge the gap between an individual’s experience and their development relating to the activity. Students in higher education bring varying amounts of previous experience to the learning situation, depending upon their state of maturity, so collaboration between students is a means of sharing experience in relation to the problem to be solved. Hence this is applicable to learning about using practical and social skills within a particular context. The following summarises ways in which experiential learning may be applicable to learning design:

• Learning builds upon that which has been learned before, and stimulates a desire to learn from new challenges;

• Learners construct their new experiences by active construction of ideas upon previous experience;

• Learning is not simply cognitive, but also involves emotions and free will;

• Learning is influenced by others, through social and cultural norms of acceptable outcomes (Knowles 1990).

So learning, rather than being an isolated activity, is dependent upon the social context, including motivational support from others (Alexander and Boud 2001). It is the collaborative or co-operative nature of learning that distinguishes learning in higher education from learning in children.

A team project is an excellent opportunity for students to experience constructivist, experiential and situated learning, within the confines of the higher education learning environment, where reflection, peer reinforcement and encouragement play an important part in participation and acquisition learning. Teamwork activities that are well designed will encourage the learners to gain in expertise in the subject matter and experience in team working processes, whilst learning through social cognition.

In the next section the rationale for this research will be expanded by looking at the literature supporting the desirability of students to develop team working skills, in preparation for team working in the workplace.