Questionnaires, interviews and focus groups

Interpretive research relies on data collection, to provide facts and rich meanings for the situation under investigation. Survey tools are used to gather information from people about their knowledge, attitudes and opinions on a topic. Although a survey is associated with quantitative data, survey tools can be designed with a qualitative element, so can be used for interpretive research, such as case study, depending upon the type of data to be collected. The process of using survey tools requires a clear outline of the objectives of the survey, designing the instrument, administering it, then managing and analysis of the data, to provide results that are reliable and valid. Survey tools include questionnaires and interviews, consisting of closed and open questions, a review of written, oral or visual records, observation in an experimental situation or focus groups (Fink 2003). An outline of the tools used for this research is given next, followed by justification for those chosen.

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are usually paper based or electronic and distributed to a target audience en masse. Usually self-administered, respondents answer the questions and return the completed questionnaire to the researcher. Response rates may be low, and this may result in some bias, as for example only interested respondents complete and return the document. Within a questionnaire, a variety of question types may be incorporated, such as nominal, ordinal or numeric, and their choice depend upon the data sought. Closed questions ask for a response from predetermined choices, whereas open questions enable the respondent to state views in their own words, whether they write the responses themselves or the interviewer writes the responses down.

When used in social science research, questionnaires may be descriptive or relational, i.e. finding out about a situation or comparing variables in a situation (Bright 1991). After conducting the questionnaire, responses from closed questions may be analysed statistically, to prove the hypothesis, or responses to open questions may be analysed textually, to provide rich data supporting different views. The design of appropriate questions is important, if results are to have a bearing on the research questions, and

to prevent interviewer bias (Oates 2006:221). The questions must be understandable because the researcher will not be available to explain or prompt.

If requiring quantitative data the selection of an appropriate sample of respondents is important. The sample is a proportion of the relevant population, which is assumed to be representative of the entire population. Often a convenience sample is taken, respondents who are readily available, and these may not be representative. When using the data for qualitative purposes rather than quantitative purposes, it is more important that the sample of respondents chosen are able to provide a wide variety of reflective feedback, covering the relevant issues, than truly represent the population as a whole.

Interviews

Interviews are a form of survey, usually carried out face to face, by the researcher, or agent, asking respondents for answers to set questions, and recording the responses. Although the main purpose of an interview is to ask open questions, where respondents are given the opportunity to respond in any way that they choose, closed questions are used to obtain factual data from respondents, for example to ascertain the typical ages of respondents. Open questions, when asked with an open mind and encouraging the respondent, can give very detailed opinions, contributing to interpretive research. There are two types of interview: standardised, such as used for market research purposes and exploratory, used to gain insight into the topic (Oppenheim 1992). The essence of an interview is to understand the experience of respondents and the meaning they make of it (Seidman 1998). Interviews have had to be face to face in the past, but telephone or video conference interviews are also possible. An interview may be to individuals, but also group interviews are possible, when the views of the whole group are sought.

A semi-structured interview allows the respondents to elaborate on ideas and provide more detail in response to open questions. However, the researcher conducting the interview needs to take care not to influence the respondent and introduce bias, or to allow their professional role, their age, gender or culture to affect respondents’ willingness to provide open answers (Oates 2006:188).

Focus groups

The use of focus groups has a long history in market research, for obtaining opinions from a number of people in a cost effective manner (Morgan and Kreuger 1993). They are a means of enabling organised discussion, as a collective activity, where the resulting opinions are based on interaction within the group, so that triggers from individuals may spark comments by others (Kitzinger 1994; Powell et al. 1996). A group of individuals are selected and assembled by researchers to discuss and comment on, from personal experience, the topic that is the subject of the research, also known as a discussion group (Flick 2006). It is a form of interviewing, but instead of using set questions, there is an open style of eliciting statements, through prompting from the facilitator and the respondents themselves. The idea is to draw upon the respondents’ attitudes, feelings, beliefs, experiences and reactions to the topic, and elicit a multiplicity of views and emotions. Focus groups are particularly useful when there are power differences between the participants and decision makers or other professionals, or when one wants to explore the degree of consensus on a given topic (Morgan and Kreuger 1993).

Drawbacks of using focus groups include possible bias from the facilitator, who may pose leading questions, or in a way that begs a specific answer. Provided the facilitator is not the researcher this can be avoided, but the facilitator must know sufficient about the research topic to prompt for more detailed comments. In some cases a facilitator is not necessary if the dynamics of the group are trusted, as the group interact to correct views that are not socially shared or correct, so statements are validated by the group (Flick 2006:190). Focus groups, where members are self- selected, are more likely to be comprised of people who are interested in the topic, than a representative sample, but again it is more important that respondents are articulate, and able to provide comments on a wide range of issues. Data from these will provide insight into a range of issues, but not the extent of the issues, which would have to be derived quantitatively. However, the ability for individuals to react to others provides for richer feedback than could be achieved through an individual interview (Williams 2003). Errors in recording, transcribing and interpreting the comments made in a focus group session are possible. Even when tape recordings are taken of a session, utterances from respondents may be brief, and not in complete sentences, leading to misinterpretation by the researcher (Silverman 2000:187).