While concepts explain what constitutes a phenomenon, theory explains why a phenomenon developed. A theory is a “system of interconnected ideas that condenses and organises knowledge about the social world” (Neuman, 2006, p. 50). Theory identifies the “underlying general processes across different contexts or categories” that separate general patterns from the “context-laden
environment” (Mills, 2008, para. 3). From this perspective, the theorisation of the changing
relationship between religion and schooling requires the identification of “underlying general
processes” (Mills, 2008, para. 3) that have led to each phase of relationship between religion and schooling. As religion is a cultural, political, social, and epistemological phenomenon, a theory that explains religious change in schooling needs to synthesise these different disciplines into its explanation of educational change. Goertz’s theoretical structure of the two-level theory provides the structure and means by which these diverse phenomena can be organised into a coherent theory. The two-level theory organises “causal variables at two levels of analysis that are systematically
Basic-level Concept Secondary- level Property Indicator-level property Indicator-level property Indicator -level property Secondary- level Property Indicator-level property Indicator -level property Indicator -level property
related to one another” (Goertz & Mahoney, 2005, p. 497). The two levels consist of the “basic- level causal variable” and the “secondary-level variable or property” (Goertz, 2006, p. 240). Together these two levels explain why the basic concept arose.
The basic-level of the two-level theory “represents the core of the theory focusing on the central causal variables and main outcome under investigation” (Goertz & Mahoney, 2005, pp. 497-498). The basic-level variables form “the building blocks of two-level theories” (Goertz & Mahoney, 2005, p. 501). At the basic-level are “the main causal variables and outcome variable of the theory as a whole” (Goertz, 2006, p. 240). Thus, at the basic-level the central causal variables that have led to each phase of relationship between religion and schooling are identified.
Underpinning the basic-level causal variables are the secondary-level properties or variables. These variables and properties at the secondary-level are dependent upon the basic-level variables as “their effects cannot be understood independently of their relationship with the causal factors at the basic-level” (Goertz & Mahoney, 2005, p. 498). The secondary-level variables help “to bring into being more temporally proximate causal variables”, defining a distinction between “more remote causes” at the secondary-level, in contrast to the “more proximate causes” at the basic-level (Goertz & Mahoney, 2005, p. 503). This is advantageous as it “adds complexity to the argument developed at the basic level” (Goertz & Mahoney, 2005, p. 506). As Pierson states “many important social
processes take a long time – sometimes an extremely long time to unfold … There are important
things we do not see at all” (2003, p. 178). Thus, secondary-level causal variables are particularly useful for research that seeks to explain cumulative social processes where influential historical variables may be far removed from the actual instance of the phenomenon in question.
The relationship between the secondary and basic levels can be classified as causal, ontological, or substitutable. As a causal relationship, the secondary-level variables “represent ‘causes of causes’” (Goertz & Mahoney, 2005, p. 503). This means the “are treated as causes of the causal variables at the basic level” (Goertz & Mahoney, 2005, p. 498). These causal variables can be theorised as being “individually necessary and jointly sufficient”, meaning that all variables must be present to cause the concept, or substitutable meaning that the presence of all the variables is not necessary (Goertz & Mahoney, 2005, p. 498). Substitutable variables are “different ways by which it is possible to arrive at basic-level states” (Goertz & Mahoney, 2005, p. 498). In addition, the secondary-level can be constituted by ontological properties (as opposed to variables), that “represent features that define or constitute causal variables at the basic level” (Goertz & Mahoney,
* = Logical AND
+ = Logical OR
- - - = Ontologicalrelationship = Casual relationship
2005, p. 498). These secondary-level properties are distinctive as they are “the elements that
literally constitute basic-level phenomena” (Goertz & Mahoney, 2005, p. 498).
The secondary level of the two-level theory provides the means to identify the historical origins of a phenomenon, recognising that social phenomenon are often the result of socially cumulative processes that require analysis beyond their historical and geographical boundaries. In this way, two-level theories expose variables, processes, and properties that lead to an enhanced and comprehensive understanding of why each phase of relationship between religion and schooling arose. Thus, two-level theories explain how the three-level concept arose.
The construction of two-level theory demonstrates the close relationship between theory and concept where Figure 2.2, illustrates the skeleton structure of the two-level theory in relation to the three-level concept. As the legend in Figure 2.2 demonstrates, the relationship between the levels is represented as an ontological relationship through a dashed line, or as a causal relationship through a straight line. In addition, within each figure a property or variable can be categorised by an
‘asterisk’ indicating the relationship between variables is structured by the logical AND - that is all
variables are individually necessary and jointly sufficient - or a ‘cross’, representing the logical OR, indicating that the relationship between variables/properties is substitutable.
Figure 2-2: Goertz's (2006) two-level theory and three-level concept
Basic-level Concept Secondary- level Property Indicator-level property Indicator-level property Indicator -level property Secondary- level Property Indicator-level property Indicator -level property Indicator -level property