Fundamental to the differentiation of schooling from religion was the changing perception of values, human nature, and human ability. Based upon the premise that as the values of society and the perception of human nature changes, so too does the ethos, nature and purpose of the key institutions of socialisation also change. When society becomes dominated by secular attitudes and beliefs, the schooling system changes to reflect the society that gives it its mandate. Differentiated schooling arose from a change of worldview from a Christian perception of human nature to a secular perception. Within differentiated schooling the mind became identified with the “individual self” and a “private psychic consciousness” that replaced the traditional Christian belief that the individual was “a channel through which a universal and divine intelligence operated” (Dewey, 1942, pp. 340-341)
Figure 6.2 illustrates the the basic-level variable of a secular perception and rationale of values, human nature and human ability that is underpinned by two secondary-level causal variables - the Enlightenment and liberalism - and one secondary-level ontological property - secular monism. The Enlightenment and liberalism were both fundamental to redefining the perception of the individual and values outside of a religious worldview, and therefore are posited as being individually necessary and jointly sufficient. However, the ontological property secular monism, understood as an encompassing monolithic worldview that perpetuates a secular source and understanding of life, while influential to redefining the ethos and purpose of the school, is not a necessary property. This is because secular monism was not a property that held political consensus for the initial differentiation of schooling. Accordingly, secular monism cannot be characterised as necessary.
Nevertheless, over the 20th century secular monism developed to have educational and political
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Figure 6-2: The secondary-level variables and property of a secular perception and rationale of values, human nature and human ability.
The following three sections explain how each of these variables/properties contributed to the changing perception of values, human nature and human ability.
6.2.1 The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was a socially cumulative event that contributed to the secular perception of values, human nature, and human ability that came to predominate state schooling in the
differentiated era. The goal of the Enlightenment was “human and social progress” and
“perfectibility” through the exercise of reason (Adams & Sydie, 2002, p. 11). The enlightenment
posited that reason, “without any arbitrary restraint” such as religion, was to be the means for the
“happiness and welfare of society as a whole” (Adams & Sydie, 2002, p. 11). Subsequently,
salvation became secondary to the goals of happiness and equality that would be realised through the creation of an “autonomous, rational individual” (Usher & Edwards, 1994, p. 30). Education was integral because “through education the individual can develop the capacity to think and act for
himself” (Mueller, 2009, p. 176).
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Secular perception and rationale of values , human
nature and human ability Enlightenment
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Liberalism
Subsequently education changed from having a role of governance and salvation, informed by a religious worldview, to a role of liberation as human nature came to be seen as perfectible (Arthur, 2008). In contrast to the prevalent belief of the Middle Ages that humans were inherently sinful, the political philosophers of the Enlightenment had an optimistic belief in human nature. In the
words of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, there was “no original sin in the human heart” (Rousseau in
Wright, 2004, p. 127). Emphasis was placed on education where John Locke believed that “of all
the Men we meet with, Nine Parts of Ten are what they are, Good or Evil, useful or not, by their
education” (Locke in Wright, 2004, p. 135). Consequently, education became vested with an
important role in determining the character and future of the individual. Education was no longer focused upon salvation in the next world but upon an array of “possible futures” in this world (Sparkes & Isaacs, 2004, p. 93). As Milojević states, “reason rather than faith … started to form the core nucleus of modern education ... the meaning of life was to be found within the vocational
sphere and intelligent development (Milojević, 2005, p. 27).
Isaac Newton was significant in changing the perception of the individual owing to his scientific discoveries that altered the perception of the ability and power of human beings. Newton believed that “if human reason could penetrate to the farthest limits of the universe there should logically be no limit to the bounds of human reason” (Arthur, Gearon & Sears, 2010, p. 65). Subsequently, the belief developed that knowledge could be learnt by human reason independent of theology (Lucas,
1972). As such, knowledge would no longer be based upon “assent to any proposition, not thus
made out by deductions of reason, but upon the credit of the proposer, as coming from God, in
some extraordinary way of communication” (Pearson, 1978, p. 248). This is what Dewey refers to
as an “intellectual individualism” (Dewey, 1942, pp. 346-347).
John Locke similarly made important contributions to the ascendancy of reason, Locke posited that upon the “natural faculties” of the mind - “sensation” and “reflection” - knowledge should be based
upon a “certainty or probability of such propositions or truths” (Locke in Pearson, 1978, p. 259).
Locke believed that “humans are equally endowed with mental ability to understand the principles that govern how things work”, thus all have the equal ability for reason (Sparkes & Isaacs, 2004, p. 94). Upon this philosophy of human nature and equality there is the theoretical foundation for the development of the universal provision of education on the grounds that it is by “the law of nature that each person is able to think for themselves and to make property” (Sparkes & Isaacs, 2004, p. 95). Locke’s philosophy also had implications for the Enlightenment’s “argument for religious
tolerance” as “Locke’s idea of the mind with equal natural rights” meant that “the accumulation of knowledge would lead people in different directions, and each individual had a right to his own
interpretation of God” (Mueller, 2009, p. 176).
A central ideal of the Enlightenment was that knowledge should become “generally” if not
“universally, available” (Coulby & Jones, 1995, p. 26). The Enlightenment posited that “knowledge and moral principles” can be “applied across time, space and cultural differences” (Barker, 2003, p. 196). Education was central to this goal and was “the vehicle by which the Enlightenment ideals of critical reason, humanistic individual freedom and benevolent progress are substantiated and
realised” (Usher & Edwards, 1994, p. 24). In summary, the concept of schooling that arose in the
differentiated era is “very much the dutiful child of the Enlightenment” (Usher & Edwards, 1994, p.
24).
6.2.2 Liberalism
Classical liberalism, the “first modern ideology”, is closely connected with the Enlightenment. This is illustrated by the fact that the classical liberals were described as “products of the Enlightenment” (Schmaker, 2008, p. 27). The developments (contained within the Enlightenment) towards the
ascendency of reason meant that politics “could no longer be based on traditional and religious
beliefs”, subsequently liberalism was initially defined as “the science of politics (Schmaker, 2008,
p. 27). Liberalism was believed to have the ability and depth to “establish the conditions in which people and groups can pursue the good life as each defines it”, thereby avoiding a definition or
promotion of “any particular notion of what is good” (Heywood, 2007, p. 26). Liberalism is
characterised by the principles of toleration and freedom. Toleration is a “willingness to accept and, in some cases, celebrate moral, cultural and political diversity”, that together with the principles of
“reason” and “freedom” means that people have the right to order their own lives (Heywood, 2007,
p. 35). Over the 20th century, liberalism developed to become perceived as “morally neutral”
(Heywood, 2007, p. 26).
Liberalism challenged the political rationale for the traditional theological dominance over schooling due to its belief that education was a key means for establishing “fundamental values and … a particular vision of human flourishing of excellence, usually linked to personal autonomy” (Heywood, 2007, p. 26). Consequently, in the 19th century “the drive for universal state-provided
education … was led by liberals imbued with ideas from the Enlightenment” (Mueller, 2009, p. 321). Education came to be perceived as having a meritocratic function in the distribution of
society’s rewards according to ability and effort, freeing the mind and person.
This concept of freedom is limited within modern liberalism through the development of positive freedom. Positive freedom views the state as having a role in creating conditions to enhance an
individual’s freedom. In this way, liberalism is “linked to welfarism and state intervention”
(Heywood, 2004, p. 260), and therefore provides the rationale for state intervention in education, while also limiting the role of religion upon the principles of toleration and freedom. When applied to education, a liberal education can be defined as one that seeks to liberate or free (Kimball, 1996).
6.2.3 Secular Monism
The emphasis upon reason in society and education increased over the 20th century to become a
secular monism. Monism is the assumption that “human nature was unchanging, unaffected in its
essentials by culture and society, and capable of indicating what way of life was best” (Parekh, 2000, p. 10). Consequently, secular monism is defined by the universal belief in secular values and
human characteristics, where individuals, regardless of “however much they are divided by time
and space, share a common nature consisting of unique capacities, dispositions and desires”
(Parekh, 2000, p. 17).
Secular monism rests upon the assumption that the “centrality of reason” is universally shared and that the ‘good life’ should be defined upon “critical rationality, choice and personal autonomy” (Parekh, 2000, p. 36). The belief in a common rational human nature was fundamental to justifying universal compulsory schooling where, regardless of cultural or religious difference, there is a “shared human nature” on “the basis of both equality and moral uniformity” (Parekh, 2000, p. 47).
Thus, schooling had the purpose of moulding individuals to become “rational, purposive, and
empowered to act with autonomy and competence in the new universalistic system” (Boli et al.,
1985, p. 157).
Secular monism has consequences for how the concept of ‘secular’ is perceived and practiced
within an education system. Crucial here is the difference between secularity and secularism. An
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framework for accommodating and protecting different belief systems” (Cole Durham, 2012, pp.
359 - 360). Secularism, however, is “an end in itself” (Cole Durham, 2012, p. 360).