Macrosystems

The macrosystem is the overarching system, encompassing the microsystem, mesosystem and exosystem. It contains the beliefs and culture of society and can be described as the scheme encompassing the individual and all the various systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1994:40). The macrosystem contains the social, cultural, legal, religious, political, economic and educational values. It sets standards and determines what is appropriate and desirable (Muuss, 2006:307). As discussed in the previous chapter, gangs are known to develop in marginalised communities. Individuals who are disengaged or marginalised from society are more likely to engage in delinquent acts. They lack regard for society‟s norms because of their impoverished socialisation with mainstream society (Dukes et al, 1997:142). Kinnes (2000:3) states that community‟s perception of political exclusion fuels and maintains gang activity in the Western Cape.

Social order is maintained when individuals internalise society‟s norms (Dudley & Gerdes, 2005:84).In communities characterised by easy access to drugs and a normalisation of illegal activities, as well as weakened legitimate social controls, gang membership will prevail. Violence within communities can increase the prevalence for offending, as exposure to violence affects behavioural and emotional functioning. Feelings of hopelessness, despair and a lack of control can be externalised through oppositional behaviour and conduct problems (Koffman et al, 2009:239). Community violence fosters gang involvement; gangs provide a sense of security and replace systems which the individual is disengaged from and which

have failed to meet the individuals needs, for example the family and law enforcement agencies,. Gangs provide the individual with a chance to gain revenge (Garbarino, 2001:366). Chronic exposure to violence can result in pessimism and a loss of future orientation. The individual begins to believe that death is inevitable and responds with risky and antisocial behaviour (Garbarino, 2001:372). Violence becomes central to the formation and continuation of gangs and is encompassed in the communication styles and activities of gangs (Melde et al, 2009:586). Garbarino (2001: 373) illustrates the effects and centrality of violence through an interview held with a young boy whose brother had been killed in a gang fight. When the boy was asked if he could have anything in the world what would it be, he responded by saying that he would want a gun so that he could take revenge on his brother‟s killer. Similar reports exist in a study conducted in Mannenberg (Legget, 2002:25) where gang members were asked to identify their reasons for joining the gang. A large majority reported joining after the death of a family member or friend inflicted by another gang. They joined in order to avenge their loved one‟s death. Violence becomes the motivation, norm and solution.

The need to resist and live in opposition to roles and social norms can be understood by the individual‟s exposure to them. The individual may join a gang in response to the violence, betrayal and disillusionment which he may have experienced at the hands of his family, police officers, teachers or community members. The individual becomes defiant and seeks to resist the humiliating and hierarchical relationship within which he views his family and community to exist (Sauma, 2008:34). The gang provides an escape, as well as ironically, a perceived means to achieve freedom.

The individual‟s development is influenced by the interaction with various systems which exist on different levels. The overarching system in which the individual and microsystem, mesosystems and exosystems exist is that of the macrosystem. This system is the source of societal norms and values which permeate through the various systems. With regards to the individual‟s decision to engage in a gang, the macrosystem subtlety shapes the individual‟s behaviour further providing risk factors for engaging in a gang.

3 3.CONCLUSION

The development of each individual is distinctive due to his interaction with a variety of systems. The nature of this interaction is unique, as is the individual‟s ability to adapt in varying contexts. The risk and protective factors encompassed within each system varies for each individual. These systems are constantly evolving, resulting in a process that changes based on time and place (Bronfenbrenner, 1994:41). It is important to note that the interaction between the systems can result in healthy, as well as unhealthy, development. The nature of the relationship determines the nature of development. Risk factors for engaging in a gang can exist simultaneously occurring within multiple contexts. Individuals choose to join a gang, based on a variety of factors found within the individual level as well as the various systems identified by the ecological perspective.

Various risk factors contained within the environment have been explored, as well as individual motivational factors. However these factors are not absolute. No clear process of engaging in a gang exists as the process is unique for each individual. The process of joining a gang does not happen by chance but occurs after deliberation. The individual is motivated by various needs and ultimately decides to join a gang based on fulfilment in meeting his needs (Jankowski, 1991:47).

The phenomenon and evolution of gangs explored in the previous chapter, along with the insight into the process by which an individual engages in a gang gained in this chapter, provide a framework for understanding the construct of a gang and gang involvement. Based on this knowledge, the interaction between gangs and drugs will now be explored.

CHAPTER 4

DRUGS AND GANGS

4.1. INTRODUCTION

The aim of the study is to understand male gang members‟ perspectives on the interaction between gangs and drugs. In order to achieve this a sound literature review is needed, exploring each variable of the subject matter. The first variable examined is that of the construct of a gang and gang formation. This was followed by discussing the process by which an individual engages in a gang. These chapters have provided insight into the evolution of gang as well as motivational forces which play a role in gang involvement. The focus of previous chapters has been on gangs. In meeting the aim of the study, the following chapter introduces a further variable, that of drugs. This chapter addresses the objective of exploring drugs and their interaction with gangs. An overview of substance usage will now be presented, followed by a discussion on the interaction between drugs and gangs.

In order to commence, the definition of terms will be clarified. The phenomenon of drugs will then be contextualised through the use of statistics in order to identify the extent of substance usage within South Africa. Theory provides a framework for understanding phenomenon. Substance usage will be discussed, based on relevant theories. Risk and protective factors with regards to substance usage will be identified.

This chapter aims to explore the interplay between substance usage and gangs. Literature will be presented so that the correlation between the two factors may be investigated. Studies linking gangs to drugs will be examined and available statistics highlighted. International and South African gang typologies will be presented and then linked specifically to the role which drugs play within these gang typologies. Drugs are said to play a role in gang formation and organisation as well as contributing to various gang activities. These aspects will be identified and discussed. Apart from gang members‟ use of drugs, gangs have been reported to be involved in drug trade and this phenomenon will be explored. The temporal

order of gang usage and gang involvement is a highly contested issue, with limited consensus. In conclusion pertinent research in this area will be presented.