In the earlier section entitled Creativity, I introduced Balkin’s (1990) creative process. In the following, I bring together the areas of art-making and creative process. There is extensive literature on the creative processes in some of the art-making areas of this thesis and little in others, and in some literature,
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Community-based classes and arts activities are reported in local newspapers and in such local and national publications and websites as those of Hamilton Community Arts Council, Arts Waikato, NZ Potters Inc., Dance Aotearoa New Zealand (DANZ) and Patchwork and Quilting New Zealand.
creative process is described but not identified in such terms. It is not possible to cover the creative processes of all the relevant areas of art-making fully in this thesis. Therefore, I limit the number of literary sources and focus particularly on the creative processes unique to certain art-making areas. However, I highlight the creative processes of dance-making and Māori weaving, for the reasons outlined above.
As discussed above, Balkin (1990) describes creative processes in terms of preparation, incubation, illumination, verification and the ‘re’ factor. According to Zimmerman (2005), artistic creativity has been defined as “a range of multidimensional processes that includes knowledge of art concepts and traditions in culture, creative thinking skills, and intrinsic motivation” (p. 65, referring to Amabile, 1983). Thus, while Balkin’s (1990) creative processes provide a potential framework for or description of the processes an art-maker undertakes in order to create works, there are often elements of an individual art-making area that require unique knowledge and skills. Within the general area of artistic creativity, there is also some variation in the creative processes considered relevant to different areas of art-making. For example, researcher Susan Perry (2005) considers Balkin’s (1990) creative process as somewhat relevant to fiction-writing. However, Perry (2005) views Csikszentmihalyi’s (1996) flow (described and discussed earlier in this chapter) as the key process of fiction-writing.
On the other hand, poet Jane Piirto (2005) identifies a number of aspects of the creative process of poets: prewriting rituals; a quest for silence; inspiration from “the Muse”, nature, substances such as alcohol, drugs and herbs, travel, art and music; imagination and dreams; fasting; meditation; and improvisation. While not all poets use all of these aspects equally and the means of inspiration varies from one poet to another, many poets acknowledge that all are relevant (Piirto, 2005). Some of Piirto’s (2005) aspects are related to Balkin’s (1990) processes, for example, prewriting rituals are part of preparation; however, other aspects are less clearly related.
Musician Marc Leman (2005) views romantic versus rationalist
approaches on musical creativity as key issues of creative process. A romantic view of creativity highlights intuitive and emotional engagement whereas a rationalist view highlights thinking and the scientific and mathematical
the realm of musical composition with technology, both romantic and rational skills are required:
The modern technological environment implies that creativity—in itself based on thinking, intuition, and emotional experiences—can be controlled and guided through scientific investigation. Yet, the latter doesn’t imply that creativity is simply a matter of machine thinking either; machines have become useful as extensions of musical creativity…The tools developed for creative explorations require navigation and intelligent decision making within a space of constrained possibilities. (p. 108)
It is likely that Leman (2005) would view Balkin’s (1990) creative processes as pertaining to the rational more than the romantic, since Balkin’s processes are more focused on the cognitive skills rather than the emotional and intuitive.
The creative processes of graphic and digital design include aspects of both visual arts, in terms of design, colour, texture, etcetera, and technology, in terms of such areas as programmes, templates and visual effects. Derksen (2008) maintains that the creativity of individual digital designers is in danger of being lost completely since designers are bound by the options provided by computer programmes. In addition, graphic and digital design involves negotiating with clients employing designers and working in teams which include such people as writers and publishers (Gardener & Wilkinson, 2008). Creativity and creative processes can be threatened by demands of clients in terms of deadlines and money-making; designers can be forced to short-cut creative processes and, therefore, limit creativity (Gardener & Wilkinson, 2008). Working in teams can provide the environment for a multitude of new ideas to emerge and be examined; however, group negotiation will also have an impact on the creative processes undertaken and/or the duration of any of Balkin’s (1990) phases.
Perhaps because quilt-making is often viewed as a handcraft rather than an area for academic research, available literature does not generally focus on creative processes such as Balkin’s (1990) model60. However, like graphic and digital design, creative processes may vary depending on a number of factors. While Balkin’s (1990) creative processes may reflect phases of quilt-
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Graham and Stalker’s (2007) paper is an exception, since it is presented in an academic context. However, this paper does not focus on creative processes per se.
making, individual art-makers may adapt their processes depending on whether they are designing their own quilts or copying others’ designs, whether they are working on their own or a group quilt and/or whether they are creating quilts for exhibitions, sales, personal gifts or to meet the particular rules of individual competitions (Graham & Stalker, 2007).
While many writers highlight other areas of dance such as motif or technique development, Morris (2005) focuses his discussion on creative processes. Morris (2005) identifies differences in creative processes between dance performance, improvised dance and dance-making. According to Morris (2005), “(t)he creativity of performing dance is grounded in the movement itself” (p. 89). Since, in dance performance, there can be no Cartesian split of body from mind, “(c)reative performers of movement are those who maintain heightened awareness and sensitivity to the creativity of the human body at rest and in motion, as well as the creativity of the interface of the body/mind” (p. 89). In a similar manner to acting, dance performance involves very fast
reactions to self, audience and other dancers. On the other hand, improvisational dance may be used as a tool for making dances, as an experience in its own right or as performance. In improvisation, the emphasis is on instantaneously-made “appropriate, meaningful, internally felt” choices (p. 93). While in dance- making and performance dance, emphasis may be placed on skills, Morris (2005) claims that improvisation depends more on non-rational approaches to dance. However, in dance-making, the creative process may vary from one dance-maker to another and from one dance to another for the same dance- maker (Morris, 2005). The creative process in dance-making involves the dance-maker “attend(ing) to life, and to what intrigues, motivates, or inspires him or her” (p. 95). Morris (2005) writes of preparation time in dance-making. This time and the activities of preparation could be viewed as similar to Piirto’s (2005) rituals performed before poetry writing begins and could be identified as preparation in Balkin’s (1990) five-phase process:
The dance maker may have no idea when going into the studio what his or her inspiration will be—this time. He or she may start with the materials of movement, manipulating, playing—and then attending to what interests him or her. (p. 95)
Foster (1976) echoes similar ideas to Morris (2005). Foster (1976) notes that the dancer needs to go to the studio and she may simply begin by walking. This
walking, which might continue for the whole of the first day, may then be followed by running and then by the beginnings of choreographed excerpts. However, visual and tactile elements may also provide a focal point for
beginning choreography. An example of such visual and tactile elements could be the sensation of standing in a beam of sunlight which falls on a particular area of the studio floor; this sensation may be incorporated in the choreography and the particular area on the floor may also be a focus in the resulting dance (Foster, 1976). Thus, the preparation phase of the creative processes of dance may include a variety of activities and sensations which can vary from one dancer to another and from one dance-making experience to another (Morris, 2005).
Next, the creative processes in dance-making will involve an interweaving of attention, engagement, intent and materials; each of these elements may take prominence at different points in the choreographic process or they may act simultaneously (Morris, 2005). Morris (2005) describes such interweaving as involving tension, creating a different world in time and space and the incorporation of the dance-maker’s own history, knowledge and sensations:
Dance makers create and resolve tension through use of form, guided by sensation, feeling, past experience, and personal knowledge. The dance maker creates a world that unfolds in time, moves in and through space, with specific energetic dynamics and overarching intent. One or more of these aspects may be of greater interest or importance to the dance maker than the others, either for a single dance or over the course of many dances in a body of work. (pp. 95- 6)
For the dance-maker, performance and the audience are also part of the creative processes. According to Morris (2005), when a dance work is performed, the audience “senses engaged choreographic choices for their fullness, appropriateness, clarity, and originality” (p. 96). Meanwhile, the dancers’ engagement in performance needs to mirror and transmit “the
choreographer’s engagement during the original creative act” (Morris, 2005, p. 96). Therefore, receiving feedback from audience members is a crucial process for the dance-maker, since this is one way of finding out whether the original intent has been communicated.
Approaches such as Balkin’s (1990) creative process of preparation, incubation, illumination, verification and the ‘re’ factor, as described in the creativity section above, may be usefully applied in dance-making. However, given the variations in approach, as outlined by Morris (2005), the individual steps of an organised approach such as Balkin’s (2005) may be difficult to identify and document. According to Morris (2005), “some choreographers try to find not just what is novel, but what is appropriate” and “(s)ome dance makers think of their process as problem solving, whereas others do not” (p. 96). Postmodernism and contemporary dance have been a means of introducing many new creative possibilities for use of materials in dance-making (Morris, 2005). The possibilities include non-movement elements such as voice, video, props, non-traditional performance spaces and collaboration across arts and cultures (Barbour et al., 2007; Morris, 2005). In addition, approaches to creative process and views of creativity have been changed by focus on issues such as gender and age. In contemporary dance, gender has been challenged through gender role reversals, such as women lifting men, or gender role shifts, such as women lifting women. In terms of age, there has been a “general shift toward older dancers in some genres, indeed a revaluing of the sensibilities that a mature dance artist offers” (Morris, 2005, p. 97). Morris (2005) cites the example of The Liz Lerman Company which employs dancers from twenties to eighties age groups. Finally, since dance is a performing art, variations occur between one performance and the next and can be influenced by a wide range of factors61 for individuals, within groups of dancers, between dancers and
technicians and with the audience. Thus, creative processes are difficult to define in the area of dance-making, since there are so many points of variation between one dance-maker and another and between one performance and another.
Finally, for indigenous and non-western cultures and for many art- makers, whatever their culture, creative process is influenced by the
interweaving of spirituality, culture and the area(s) of art-making. Thus, spirituality and creativity cannot be viewed as separate concepts for many indigenous peoples, non-western cultures and art-makers (Barbour et al., 2007; Estés, 1992; Ferguson, 1996; Roth, 1997; Te Awekotuku, 1991a, 1991b). Such
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Such influences may include physical, emotional, time of day, recent personal events and challenges of the performing space.
an interweaving of spirituality and creativity may mean that creative process includes such areas as prayer and respect for ancestors; this is illustrated clearly by Puketapu-Hetet (1989) with regard to Māori weaving. As noted above, in Māori weaving and in most other areas of Māori culture, prayer and spirituality are not seen as separate from art-making. Traditionally, and still often today, rituals, prayers and particular procedures are included in all aspects of weaving in terms of planting, harvesting, designing and making; thus, creative processes include spiritual practices. In Māori weaving, as in other areas of art-making in Māori and other indigenous cultures, creativity is often related to faithfully replicating traditional patterns; such replication is seen as showing respect for ancestors. However, individual creativity in the development of new patterns, techniques and uses of weaving is also encouraged (Puketapu-Hetet, 1989). Examples of group and individual innovation can be seen in wearable arts competitions, non-traditional colours employed through dyeing of flax and use of non-traditional materials such as wool, cotton and raffia. It is possible that individual weavers may undertake creative processes including Balkin’s (1990) five phases, when they are developing their own designs. However, individuals and groups are likely to value spiritual, cultural, social and technical elements of weaving rather than individual creative processes such as Balkin’s (1990).
In summary, creative process in both indigenous and western art- making forms is influenced by culture, spirituality, the use of new materials and techniques and whether the area of art-making is based on performance or improvisation. While Balkin’s (1990) approach to creative processes may be embedded in many areas of art-making, the above influences may blur the possibility of such clearly defined creative processes.