participatory worldview of this thesis and strongly reinforce potential variety and challenges that may arise in my approach of embodied engagement in the research of this thesis and its outcomes (particularly those outcomes that pertain to embodied knowing). By engaging in relevant literature and art-specific learning, experimenting, reflecting and relating to the other participants and their lived experience of art-making, I am assured that new areas of learning will emerge.
In summary, while embodied knowing is of vital importance in lived experience and many areas of practice, this way of knowing may or may not be able to be verbalised; because of this challenge, embodied knowing is an under- represented form of knowledge (Barbour, 2002, 2004, 2006a, 2006b; Bright, 2005a, 2005b). In the context of this thesis, I can confirm that embodied knowing is of key importance in reflective practice in dance-making (Bright, 2005a, 2005b). However, it is likely that embodied knowing is also important in ongoing reflective practice in dance-making and in other areas of art-making such as musical composition and/or performance, visual arts such as painting, sculpture, photography and graphic and digital design, creative writing such as poetry and handcrafts such as pottery, quilt-making and Māori weaving. Therefore, in the following section, I present a broader view of art-making, with reference to the specific art-making areas of this thesis, and return to the
discussion on embodied knowing in that context.
Art-making
As indicated, the art-making investigation of this thesis includes dance, painting, photography, pottery, poetry, sculpture, quilting, musical composition and performance, Māori weaving and graphic and digital design. There are large bodies of academic writing on visual and performing arts areas such as painting, sculpture, photography, music and dance. Although less prolific, there is also literature on handcrafts such as pottery and quilting and some literature concerning Māori weaving. It is beyond the scope of this thesis to cover art-
making in its entirety or even to describe fully all the areas of art-making
undertaken by the participants in the study on which this thesis is based. Instead, I highlight briefly contemporary dance-making and Māori weaving as examples of art-making areas derived from western and indigenous cultures respectively54 55
. Then, having introduced creativity, spirituality and embodied knowing in earlier sections, I outline these areas as they relate to art-making, giving examples from the art-making fields of this thesis.
As a creative element of culture (Eisner, 2002), art-making can be a mirror of society both in reflecting and in challenging societal norms (Belenky, 1996). In other words, art-making can mirror both the positive and the negative elements of society and, in the process, affirm the humanity of both art-maker(s) and audience/viewers. For example, in affirmation of an art-maker: “To go to a woman who quilts and say, ‘Would you come share your quilting?’ it says, ‘I honor you’” (Belenky, 1996, p. 422). This mirroring role can be particularly important for marginalised peoples and for women in most cultures, since art- making can help people to see “beyond demeaning stereotypes” projected by their society (Belenky, 1996, p. 423). In a similar manner, art-making in an indigenous peoples’ context has been identified as a means of mirroring or representing the worldview of indigenous peoples.
While the value of art-making can be noted, there appears to be little in the way of generalised definitions or descriptions of what art-making is by western writers. Dancer-maker and researcher Karen Barbour (2002) describes dance-making as involving the “plurality of practices utilised in creating and performing” a dance (p. 116). This plurality of practices includes initial concepts, stories, choreographic techniques, interaction with the music and the theatre environment, the performance, creative journaling, the use of video recording and audience feedback (Barbour, 2002). While Barbour’s (2002) description relates to dance-making, art-making in general can also be said to include similar elements: training, tools and techniques of the particular field; conceptualisation for one or a series of art works; research; mechanisms for
54
While I do not wish to marginalise any particular area of art-making, I discuss dance-making and Māori weaving more fully—dance-making, because I am both dance-maker and researcher— and Māori weaving, because two of the ten participants are weavers and because, of all the art- making areas undertaken by those participants who identify themselves as Māori, weaving is an area in which an indigenous worldview is clearly articulated in literature.
55
While my description of dance-making contains a lot less detail than that of Māori weaving at this point, I include many examples from dance-making in later discussions in this and the following section.
feedback; technical considerations relating to performance, exhibition or sale; and particularities of audiences, purchasers or recipients of gifts of art56
(Barbour et al., 2007; Foster, 1976; Gardener & Wilkinson, 2008; Gibbs, 2007; Graham & Stalker, 2007; Hayes, 1993; Leman, 2005; Morris, 2005; Piirto, 2005; Perry, 2005; Puketapu-Hetet, 1989; Ratana, 2006; Sawyer, 2005; Smith, 2007; Zimmerman, 2005 and others).
While there appears to be little literature discussing art-making in general, there is increasing literature concerning visual methodologies (e.g., Rose, 2007), emergent methods, including visual and performance-based methods (e.g., Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2008), and practice-based research (e.g., Barrett & Bolt, 2009). In addition, there is a large body of literature concerning aesthetics, particularly with regard to visual media (e.g., Smith, Moriarty, Barbatsis & Kenney, 2005). Hayes (1993) presents ten aesthetic principles of form: unity, variety, repetition, contrast, transition, sequence, climax,
proportion, balance and harmony. While Hayes (1993) focuses on dance, she also provides examples from such areas as painting, design, music and architecture. In an earlier study (Bright, 2005a), I applied Hayes’ (1993) principles as an analytical tool for reflective practice in dance-making. However, it is beyond the scope of this thesis to include detailed aesthetic analysis of the art works of each participant or to focus on visual methodologies, emergent methods or practice-based research per se.
Dance-making
As mentioned above, in an earlier study (Bright, 2005a, 2005b, 2005c) I undertook a particular period of dance-making as the experience phase of a study on reflective practice in dance-making. In keeping with Barbour’s (2002) description of dance-making, as outlined above, I drew on my previous
experience and training in dance, read books, made drawings, developed dance motifs, applied choreographic techniques to these motifs and listened to and analysed the music I had chosen to use. I also videoed my practice, kept a reflective journal, wrote poetry and adjusted the work to fit in each performance venue and to suit each audience respectively. Finally, I performed the work four
56
Audience refers to both audiences of performing arts and viewers of visual arts. Purchasers relates to those who buy works of art and/or handcraft but also to the clients of graphic and digital design. Recipients of gifts of art are relevant to this thesis since some of the art-makers only create works as gifts.
times in different countries and different contexts, wrote journal entries about my sense of how the dance went and audience feedback, reviewed videos of the performances and developed the dance work further between one performance and the next. Models for the elements of my dance-making were drawn predominantly from western educational and cultural approaches to dance- making and from the dominant culture of Aotearoa New Zealand. However, while I worked as a solo contemporary dance-maker, over the months of dance- making, I needed to collaborate with many other people. Collaboration took place in such areas as negotiating for dance studio and theatre time and space and use of sound systems, feedback from peers and teachers, technical support, interaction with stage management, other performers and personnel and printing of programmes and/or live announcements. My experience in dance-making mirrors the experience of other solo contemporary dance-makers in Aoteaoa New Zealand (Barbour, 2002, 2004; Barbour & Thorburn, 2001).
Raranga (Māori weaving)
On the other hand, Māori weaving is an example of art-making which draws on training, techniques, philosophy and spirituality indigenous to Aotearoa New Zealand. According to Pendergrast (1987), “the art of the women—the
manufacture of garments or kākahu …(is) universally admired and recognised as equal in skill and beauty to the finest costumes of other lands” (p. 4). Such world-wide recognition is mirrored in the honour and respect of Māori people towards weaving:
Fine cloaks were traditionally held in extremely high regard and afforded prestige to the tribal group by enhancing the nobility of the men who wore them. The most exalted cloaks were honoured with a personal name and their fame was widespread. In value they were regarded as equivalent to the greatest treasures of the land, and there are recorded instances of cloaks being exchanged for war canoes. An example of this is the exchange of the war canoe “Te Toki a Tapiri” built in the 1840s by the Ngati Matawhaiti hapū (subtribe) of Ngati Kahungunu and presented to the chief Te Waaka Perohuka of Rongowhakaata, for the famous cloak “Karamaene”. (Pendergrast, 1987, p. 4)
The mana of the craftswoman, and through her that of her tupuna or ancestors, is vested in the garment during manufacture; later its mana will increase from association with those who wear it and the
ceremonies and other occasions of importance at which it is
displayed. Thus while the kākahu is recognised as a work of art, it is also imbued with spiritual significance and life force of its own and maintains a mystical link with the past. (Pendergrast, 1989, pp. 13- 14)
While western training of visual and creative arts generally takes place within educational institutions or handcrafts within community interest groups, Māori weaving and other arts were taught in extended family settings; this is similar to the arts training of other indigenous peoples. This preference for kanohi ki te kanohi (face-to-face) teaching within a culturally comfortable environment, rather than in a formal book-based setting, is echoed by Puketapu- Hetet (1989) as she prefaces her book on Māori weaving:
No book can beat seeing how weavers use their hands and feet. No book can give the moral support a teacher’s presence gives when you’re attempting some new, seemingly impossible feat! What the teacher conveys cannot be felt through the pages of a book. (p. 2, citing one of her students)
In addition, Puketapu-Hetet (1989) is overt about holding back from presenting all knowledge about Māori weaving in writing: “This book is merely a glimpse into the Maori world of weaving. To write about everything would be
demeaning to the knowledge that is protected” (p. vi). Thus, weaver Erenora Puketapu-Hetet (1989) maintains her right to communicate only the knowledge that she deems appropriate to the public arena of published works and to withhold other knowledge to be shared kanohi ki te kanohi in a culturally appropriate setting.
Puketapu-Hetet’s (1989) position of communicating certain knowledge and withholding other knowledge is fitting, given the
cultural/spiritual significance of weaving. Training includes how and when the flax is cut for weaving, how the work-in-progress is stored and how and to whom the finished item is distributed; these areas include socio-political, physical and ecological aspects. Pendergrast (1989) comments:
Ritual prohibitions are observed and great respect is shown for the material throughout all stages, from planting through to harvesting and the preparation of the fibre. These continue with the artistic designing of the work and the weaving itself. The spiritual essence, or mauri, contained in all living things and natural objects is
acknowledged, protected and retained through all processes and into the complete kākahu. (p. 13)
The colours of traditional weaving were red/brown and yellow and the colour of dried natural flax or muka and the materials were all gathered from the land. While styles of weaving were and are influenced still by tribal and ancestral differences, education and religion, today, many other colours and fibres, both natural and man-made, are used (Puketapu-Hetet, 1989).
The means of attracting and encouraging new weavers was through older weavers watching young girls “for signs of a potential weaver” (Puketapu- Hetet, 1989, p. 2). This ‘talent-spotting’ took place as women met in groups to weave. Acording to Puketapu-Hetet, the social interaction of the weaving group was, and still is, an attractive lure to new weavers. Traditionally and often still today, Māori weaving is taught by senior women to younger women in the context of a family group and the teaching takes place over a number of years – “in a very relaxed, natural way” (Puketapu-Hetet, 1989, p. 2). Even today, most weavers are women rather than men and, although weaving is now taught in the context of institutional education, many tutors are aware of the whakapapa of teaching from which they are descended and of the spiritual and social aspects of weaving (Puketapu-Hetet, 1989). However, Puketapu-Hetet (1989) believes that weaving courses in contemporary institutional teaching are often too short “to enable the tauira (student) to capture the spiritual aspect of weaving…To truly understand the spirit of weaving, the tauira needs to work with a weaver who understands these principles and is prepared to share her knowledge” (p. 2). Finally, noting that, traditionally, no payment was received for teaching or finished woven goods, Puketapu-Hetet (1989) maintains that payment of tutors in current institutional environments can jeopardise the spiritual foundation of the teaching. For weaver Erenora Puketapu-Hetet (1989), the spiritual and social foundations of weaving are as important as the technical skills.
Although I have introduced dance-making and raranga separately, there is one element important to this thesis which is articulated in the literature of both areas: that the art-making of dance and raranga can be viewed as ways of thinking. In dance, the dancer can be “thinking the world in movement” and “wondering the world directly, in movement” (Sheets-Johnstone, 1999, p. 486)57. In an earlier study (Bright, 2005a, 2005b), I explored the concept of thinking in movement and concluded that dance-making, as a form of embodied knowing, is one way of undertaking reflective practice. Similarly, in raranga it is said:
Ma oku ringaringa e whakaatu oku whakaro.
My hands will tell you what I think. (Te Awekotuku, 1991, p. 121; italics in original)
Thus, weavers may be aware that they “need to actually work with flax rather than words” (Te Awekotuku, 1991, p. 121). Therefore, as in dance, reflecting and the communication of reflections are non-verbal and achieved through the art-making of weaving, a form of reflection-in-action (Bright, 2005a, 2005b). In addition, in indigenous weaving, weavers often work on their own pieces but in a group setting; thus, reflection is reflection-in-action occurring in a community setting58. Te Awekotuku (1991) emphasises the importance of community in indigenous art-making when she states that a hui of Māori and Pacific weavers held in 1983 was seen as a “powerful symbol of weaving together the different communities and diverse tribal groups of Aotearoa and Te Moananui a Kiwa” (1991, p. 112). Thus, the hui itself becomes a symbol of weaving while the focus of the hui is the practice of weaving.
Hence, both dance-making and weaving illustrate the validity of art- making as a form of reflection, which may not include words, and also the role of an interactive community as a site for reflection-in-action. From this
discussion, it can be surmised that art-making in both western and indigenous or non-western traditions can be of benefit to both the art-maker and
viewer/listener participant(s) in the areas of self-esteem and as means of thinking, viewing and communicating the world.
57
In an earlier study, I explored the concepts of thinking and reflection through dance-making (Bright, 2005a, 2005b).
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The community setting of reflection-in-action in weaving can be compared to live dance performance (Bright, 2005a, 2005b) and to collaborative knowing, as discussed in Chapter 2.
In conclusion, there are differences and similarities in where and how art- making is taught and learned and whether art-makers continue to work alone or in groups. Western performing and visual art forms have most often been taught by senior practitioners in formal teaching environments of educational
institutions and private teaching businesses; students expect to pay in these instances and work towards individual achievement (Janesick, 2004; Leman, 2005; and numerous others). For example, an individual focus in a formal teaching environment in dance-making is demonstrated by a dance teacher from New York as she asks the class to observe her movement carefully: “The reason to observe so carefully, she said, ‘was to become more aware of your own body and mind’ and to ‘internalize’ the movement” (Janesick, 2004, p. 17, citing unnamed teacher, italics added). Although, following their early training, dance- makers may perform as soloists, they more often seek to work in companies and group classes while focusing on individual skills. Western handcrafts have frequently been taught within informal community groups in which the teachers are often not paid; classes may or may not come at a cost to the students (this can depend on the cost and accessibility of materials, equipment and teaching space). Classes such as those for pottery and quilt-making are often advertised in community newspapers. As a result of such classes, students may continue to work within the community, alone or in groups or collectives, on individual or group projects and sell their work or give it away59. On the other hand, teaching and learning of indigenous Māori art forms have traditionally taken place within family and community environments without payment of teachers. However, in recent times, classes in Māori arts are also taught in formal educational settings in which tutors receive payment (Puketapu-Hetet, 1989).