3. Energy
3.2. Source Category 1A – Fuel Combustion Activities
3.2.2. Methodological Issues
General Issues
Sectoral (National) and Reference Approach
Two methods are applied for modelling CO2 emissions from the energy sector, the Sectoral
(or National) Approach and the Reference Approach. For the Inventory of the Framework Convention and the Kyoto Protocol the Sectoral (National) Approach is used. The Reference Approach is only used for controlling purposes (quality control activity).
The National Approach uses specific methods for the different source categories: Fossil fuel consumption statistics (top-down approach, Tier 1) and bottom-up modelling of fuel
consumption (bottom-up, Tier 2 and Tier 3). In the subsequent sections, the National Approach is documented in detail for each source category within 1A Fuel Combustion. For the Reference Approach, the fossil fuel supply statistics is used. All imports and exports of primary fuels (crude oil, natural gas, coal), secondary fuels (gasoline, diesel oil etc.) and stock changes are published in the Swiss overall energy statistics (SFOE 2008) and the yearly reports of the Swiss Petroleum Association [Erdöl-Vereinigung/Union pétrolière] (EV 2008). These statistics account for production, imports, exports, transformation and stock changes. The Reference Approach corresponds to a top-down approach (Tier 1) based on net quantities of fuel imported to Switzerland.
More detailed information on the comparison of the Sectoral with the Reference Approach can be found in Chapter 3.6.
Oxidation Factors
For the calculation of CO2 emissions, an oxidation factor of 100% is assumed for all fossil
Energy 15 April 2009
installations in Switzerland are relatively high and because the small fraction of originally non-oxidised carbon retained in ash, particulates or soot is likely to be oxidized later naturally due to degradation processes.
As the consumption of gaseous fuels strongly increased (1990 to 2007: +61.1% to 108'230 TJ), overestimating of oxidation factors for gaseous fuels would tend to overestimate emission increase and would therefore be conservative. As the consumption of liquid fuels decreased (1990 to 2007: -6.5% to 434'573 TJ) overestimating of oxidation factors for liquid fuels would tend to overestimate emission reduction and would therefore not be
conservative. Because of the reasons mentioned above for the assumption of an emission factor of 100%, the possible overestimation of emission decrease is considered to be of minor importance.
For coal, IPCC 1996 provides a global average oxidation factor of 98.0%. However, a large share of coal in Switzerland is used in cement industry. In cement production, an oxidation
factor of 100% may be assumed according to EU guidelines (EC 2004)4.
The consumption of coal plays a minor role in Switzerland. It decreased over the considered period (1990 to 2007: -36.0% to 10'146 TJ). In case of a decrease, overestimating of
oxidation factors may tend to overestimate emission decrease. However, the main remaining consumer of coal in Switzerland is the cement industry that accounts for 66% of total Swiss coal consumption in 2007. With a large share of coal used in cement production, and under the assumption of high efficiency coal boilers, the overestimation of emission decrease may become minor.
Therefore, for all fuel combustion activities, an oxidation factor of 100% is assumed in Switzerland.
a) Energy Industries (1A1) Key categories 1A1
CO2 from the combustion of Gaseous Fuels (level)
CO2 from the combustion of Liquid Fuels (level and trend)
CO2 from the combustion of Solid Fuels (trend)
CO2 from the combustion of Other Fuels (level and trend)
N2O from the combustion of Other Fuels (level and trend)
In Switzerland, Energy Industries (source category 1A1) comprise
- “Public Electricity and Heat Production” including heat and power production in municipal
solid waste incineration plants and special waste incineration (1A1a)
- “Petroleum Refining” (1A1b).
Manufacture of Solid Fuels and Other Energy Industries (1A1c) do not occur.
Public Electricity and Heat Production (1A1a)
Methodology
For fuel combustion in Public Electricity and Heat Production (1A1a) except waste incineration, a country specific Tier 2 method is used. A top-down method based on
4 EC 2004, Annex VII, Section 2.1.1: "In cement kilns the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels is
negligible, due to the very high combustion temperatures, long residence time in kilns and minimal residual carbon found in clinker. Carbon in all kiln fuels shall therefore be accounted for as fully oxidized (oxidation factor = 1.0)."
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aggregated fuel consumption data from the Swiss overall energy statistics is used to
calculate emissions. These sources are characterised by rather similar industrial combustion processes and the same emission factors are applied throughout these sources. Emissions of GHGs are calculated by multiplying fuel consumption (in TJ) by emission factors.
For heat and/or power generation in municipal solid waste and special waste incineration plants the GHG emissions are calculated by multiplying the waste quantity incinerated by emission factors.
For fermentation engines and co-generation on landfills the GHG emissions are calculated
by multiplying quantities of combusted CH4 by emission factors.
An oxidation factor of 100% is assumed for all combustion processes and fuels (see sub- section on oxidation factors in the beginning of Section 3.2.2).
Emission Factors
(a) Waste incineration with heat and/or power generation (reported under "Other fuels")
Emission factors for CO2, N2O, NOx, CO, NMVOC and SO2 emissions per ton of waste
incinerated are country specific based on measurements and expert estimates, documented in the EMIS database (EMIS 2009/1A1a). Emission factors are taking into account flue gas
cleaning standards in incineration plants. CH4 is not occurring because of the high
combustion temperatures in waste incineration plants. The share of organic matter in the municipal solid waste is estimated to be 60% (for all years considered), based on analysis of municipal solid waste by the SFOE's waste section. The burn-out efficiency in modern municipal solid and hazardous waste incineration plants is very high.
(b) Other Public Electricity and Heat Production
The emission factors for CO2 are country specific and based on measurements and analysis
of fuel samples carried out by the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research EMPA (EMPA 1999; carbon emission factor documented in SFOE 2001, Table 45: p. 51; net calorific values on p. 61. See also Annex 2.1.1).
The activity data on LFO use in the CRF includes LPG consumption. This is due to statistical reasons in the Swiss overall energy statistics (SFOE 2008). Therefore the LFO emission
factor for CO2 used for the CRF (see table below) is a mixed emission factor that results as a
weighted average of the LFO emission factor and LPG emission factor.
Emission factors for CH4, NOx, CO and NMVOC are country specific based on
comprehensive life cycle analysis of industrial boilers, documented in SAEFL 2000 (pp. 14-
27). For NOx emission factors, expert judgement has been used to estimate the fraction of
low-NOx burners. For the related N2O emissions the default emission factors from IPCC
1997c have been used.
Emission factors for the use of wood in district heating are based on SAEFL 2000 (pp. 26ff). Emission factors for co-generation from landfills and fermentation engines are considered to be the same as for natural gas engines in commercial and institutional buildings (EMIS 2009/1A4a).
Since the fraction of stationary engines in total fuel consumption is rather small, emission factors for industrial combustion boilers are used for all sources and fuels (except for
biomass). This simplification leads to a potential underestimation of CH4 emissions from
stationary sources in 1A1 of less than 2 tons of CH4 per year (expert estimate FOEN).
Energy 15 April 2009 Table 3-9 Emission Factors for 1A1a Public Electricity and Heat Production in Energy Industries in 2007.
Emission factors for waste incineration are provided per ton of waste incinerated for both municipal solid waste incineration and special waste incineration.
Source/fuel CO2 t/TJ CO2 bio. t/TJ CH4 kg/TJ N2O kg/TJ NOx kg/TJ CO kg/TJ NMVOC kg/TJ SO2 kg/TJ
1A1a Public Electricity/Heat
Light fuel oil 73.50 1 0.6 32 11 2 32
Natural gas 55 6 0.1 14 14 2 0.5
Biomass (wood for district heating)
92 21 1.6 160 500 7 20
Biomass (co-generation from landfills)
55 23 0.1
Biomass (fermentation engine) 55 23 0.1
CO2 t/t CO2 bio. t/t CH4 kg/t N2O g/t NOx kg/t CO kg/t NMVOC kg/t SO2 kg/t Other fuels (MSW) 0.508 0.763 95.06 0.400 0.104 0.016 0.054
Other fuels (special waste) 1.450 95.06 0.400 0.104 0.016 0.054
In the table above, the CO2 emission factor of light fuel oil (73.50 t/TJ) is a weighted average5
emission factor including both LFO (73.7 t/TJ) and LPG (65.5 t/TJ) emissions.
The emission factor for N2O from municipal solid waste incineration has increased
significantly from 60 g N2O per ton of waste in 1990 to 95.06 g/t in 2007. This is due to the
increased use of DeNOx-equipment with the municipal solid waste incineration plants (EMIS
2009/1A1). It is expected that the N2O emission factor is back to 14 g/t in 2020 (EMIS
2009/1A1). This contributes to the fact that N2O emissions from 1A1 are a key category
regarding trend. Activity Data
(a) Municipal solid waste incineration ("Other fuels")
Energy recovery from municipal solid waste incineration is mandatory in Switzerland and plants are equipped with energy recovery systems (Schwager 2005). The emissions from heat and/or power generation in municipal solid waste incineration plants are therefore
reported under category 1A1a6. Included are also emissions from the incineration of special
waste, because these plants are also equipped with energy recovery systems. Activity data for waste incineration is provided in the table below.
5 Calculation: 73.50 t/TJ = (179'462 TJ * 73.7 t/TJ + 4'543 TJ * 65.5 t/TJ) / (184'005 TJ) for the
year 2007, where 179'462 TJ refers to LFO and 4'543 TJ to LPG.
6 In earlier submissions, some of the emissions from municipal solid waste incineration have been
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Table 3-10 Activity data for 1A1a "Other fuels": municipal solid waste and special waste incinerated with heat and/or power generation 1990 to 2007.
Source/fuel Unit 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 1A1a Other fuels
Total Other fuels in 1A1a Gg 2'603 2'477 2'467 2'441 2'411 2'433 2'471 2'535 2'655 2'824 Municipal solid waste Gg 2'470 2'340 2'310 2'310 2'250 2'270 2'290 2'337 2'419 2'586
Special waste Gg 133 137 157 131 161 163 181 198 237 238
Source/fuel Unit 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 1A1a Other fuels
Total Other fuels in 1A1a Gg 3'040 3'163 3'258 3'226 3'366 3'527 3'896 3'816 Municipal solid waste Gg 2'801 2'936 3'027 2'995 3'135 3'297 3'646 3'580
Special waste Gg 239 227 232 231 231 230 250 236
The table above documents the increase of municipal solid waste incinerated by 45% from
1990 to 2007. This is due to the fact that since 1st of January 2000, disposal on landfill sites
of waste which can be incinerated, is prohibited by law. See also Chapter 8.4 on Waste
Incineration. This increase results in CO2 emissions from "Other fuels" (i.e. MSW
incineration) in category 1A1 being a key category regarding trend. Also, municipal solid waste is imported from neighbouring countries to optimize the load factor of MSW incineration plants.
(b) Other Public Electricity and Heat Production
Activity data on fuel consumption (TJ) for Public Electricity and Heat Production (1A1a) is extracted from the Swiss overall energy statistics. The activity data for 2007 correspond to the consumption of LFO, natural gas and biomass (wood) in public district heating systems (SFOE 2008; tables 21, 26, and 28). "Other fuel" is calculated from the annual amount of municipal solid waste incinerated with heat and/or electricity (see Table 3-10). Activity data for co-generation from landfills and fermentation engines is taken from the Swiss renewable energies statistics (SFOE 2008a).
Activity data for the use of wood for district heating has not yet been updated to include new data from the Swiss overall energy statistics for the years 2002-2005. It is planned to include these data in the next submission.
Energy 15 April 2009 Table 3-11 Activity data in 1A1a Public Electricity/Heat.
Source/fuel Unit 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
1A1a Public Electricity /Heat Fuel Consumption
Total TJ 40047 41342 43185 38309 37751 38668 41437 42411 47698 45719
Light fuel oil TJ 980 1790 1917 1662 810 554 810 1065 852 725
Heavy fuel oil TJ 3195 5006 6336 1748 1541 1791 2420 1063 4093 815
Natural gas TJ 4271 4694 4640 4603 4702 5291 6552 6916 6757 6674
Coal TJ 499 105 105 79 79 53 0 0 0 0
Other (waste-to-energy) TJ 30768 29369 29684 29595 29880 30264 30911 32661 35284 36784
Biomass (wood for district heating) TJ 40 40 70 50 60 50 70 50 60 60
Biomass (co-generation from landfills) TJ 228 265 353 484 586 563 563 535 525 530
Biomass (fermentation engine) TJ 65 74 79 88 93 102 112 121 126 130
Source/fuel Unit 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1A1a Public Electricity /Heat Fuel Consumption
Total TJ 46417 48440 48713 49496 50813 53192 56905 54780
Light fuel oil TJ 512 554 512 682 554 852 938 426
Heavy fuel oil TJ 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0
Natural gas TJ 5777 6273 6031 6780 6802 6947 5845 4755
Coal TJ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Other (waste-to-energy) TJ 39371 40915 41472 41298 42786 44745 49405 48660
Biomass (wood for district heating) TJ 70 70 130 160 180 190 250 480
Biomass (co-generation from landfills) TJ 525 460 377 358 246 186 160 134
Biomass (fermentation engine) TJ 163 167 191 218 244 271 298 325
The table above documents the increase of Gaseous Fuel consumption by 11% from 1990 to
2007. This increase is one of the reasons for category 1A1 Gaseous Fuels – CO2 being a
key category regarding trend. From 2005 to 2007 Gaseous Fuel consumption dropped, as gas was substituted by other fuels. "Other (waste-to-energy)" comprises municipal solid waste (MSW), which also includes biomass, and special waste. Biomass (other than MSW) comprises co-generation on landfills, fermentation engines, and use of wood for district heating.
Petroleum Refining (1A1b)
Methodology
For fuel combustion in Petroleum Refining (1A1b), a country specific Tier 2 bottom-up method is used. The calculations are generally based on measurements and data from individual point sources from the refining industry. The unit of emission factors refers to fuel consumption (in TJ).
Emission Factors
Emission factors for CO2, CH4, N2O, CO, NMVOC and SO2 are country specific based on
measurements and data from industry and expert estimates, documented in the EMIS database (EMIS 2009/1A1b, see Section 1.4.3) and in SAEFL 2000.
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Table 3-12 Emission Factors for 1A1b Petroleum Refining in 2007.
Source/fuel CO2 t/TJ CH4 kg/TJ N2O kg/TJ NOx kg/TJ CO kg/TJ NMVOC kg/TJ SO2 kg/TJ
1A1 b Petroleum Refining
Heavy fuel oil 77 4.0 0.8 110 15 2.5 490
Gas (refinery LPG) 59.3 1.0 0.6 55 15 2.3 25
P-Coke 94.0 10 1.6 200 100 10.0 500
Activity Data
Activity data on fuel combustion (TJ) for Petroleum Refining (1A1b) is extracted from the Annual Reports of the Swiss Petroleum Association (EV 2008).
Table 3-13 Activity data in 1A1b Petroleum Refining.
Source/fuel Unit 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 1A1b Petroleum Refining Fuel
Consumption
Total TJ 5'906 8'670 8'137 9'290 10'679 10'317 11'092 10'693 11'022 11'353 Heavy fuel oil TJ 1'296 1'216 998 1'054 1'426 1'834 1'618 1'780 1'428 1'698 Gas (refinery LPG) TJ 4'610 7'454 7'139 8'237 9'253 8'483 9'474 8'913 9'594 9'655
Petroleum coke TJ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Source/fuel Unit 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 1A1b Petroleum Refining Fuel
Consumption
Total TJ 10'091 10'909 11'447 10'525 14'360 14'579 15'998 13'640 Heavy fuel oil TJ 1'952 1'936 1'518 1'769 1'339 906 692 1'159 Gas (refinery LPG) TJ 8'139 8'973 9'929 8'756 11'901 11'678 13'311 10'766
Petroleum coke TJ 0 0 0 0 1'120 1'995 1'995 1'715
The table above documents the increase of gas (refinery LPG) consumption for petroleum refining by 134% from 1990 to 2007. This is explained by the fact that in 1990 one of the two Swiss refineries operated at reduced capacity and in later years resumed full production,
leading to higher fuel consumption. This increase is the major reason for CO2 emissions from
category 1A1 Gaseous Fuels being a key category regarding trend. Since 2004, one of the Swiss refineries is using petroleum coke as a fuel.
b) Manufacturing Industries and Construction (1A2) Key categories 1A2
CO2 from the combustion of Gaseous Fuels (level and trend)
CO2 from the combustion of Liquid Fuels (level and trend)
CO2 from the combustion of Solid Fuels (level and trend)
CO2 from the combustion of Other Fuels (level and trend)
Methodology
For fuel combustion in Manufacturing Industries and Construction (1A2) a country specific Tier 2/3 method is used. The method combines both bottom-up and top-down elements (see table below). Emissions of GHGs are calculated by multiplying levels of activity by emission factors.
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- A top-down method based on aggregated fuel consumption data from the Swiss overall
energy statistics and energy-economic modelling is used to calculate overall emissions of each of the categories 1A2a to 1A2f. Identical emission factors for each fuel type are applied throughout these sources with the exception of the emission factor for coal in 1A2f, because it is the only category in which the use of lignite occurs. The unit of emission factors refers to fuel consumption (in TJ).
- A bottom-up (Tier2/Tier3) method is used to calculate the emissions for a part of the activities in the categories in 1A2a, 1A2b, 1A2d and 1A2f (see Table 3-14). This bottom-
up approach does not change overall emissions of the gases CO2, CH4 and N2O in these
categories, as in each of the categories, the difference between the bottom-up part and the top-down allocation for the entire category is allocated to other sources in this category (with the exception of the fossil part of waste combustion in cement industry). Estimates for heavy fuel oil and coal consumption for the bottom-up part of 1A2f
exceeded the amounts allocated top-down for 1A2f in some years. It was interpreted that this was due to stock changes, and corresponding corrections were made. Activities which were determined bottom-up are: Cupola furnaces in iron foundries and reheating furnaces in steel plants (1A2a); Aluminium second smelter and non-ferrous metal
foundries (1A2b); biomass use in Pulp, Paper and Print (1A2d); Cement, Lime, Brick and tile, Fine ceramics, Asphalt concrete plants, Container glass, Glass, Glass wool, Mineral wool, Fibreboard production and industrial biogas boilers and engines that do not provide heat or electricity to the public (all in 1A2f). For this submission, Mineral wool
impregnation has been added as a new process in addition to Mineral wool production in 1A2f. The calculations are based on measurements and data from individual point sources from industry. Emission factors refer both to fuel consumption (in TJ) or
production data (e.g. in tons of steel or cement produced). A bottom-up approach is also
used to estimate CO2 emissions from waste derived fuels used in cement industry
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Table 3-14 Overview on methods applied to calculate GHG emissions in 1A2.
Source Specification Data Source
1A2a Iron and Steel
Cupola furnaces in iron foundries and reheating furnaces in steel plants Other sources in 1A2a
Bottom-up Top-down
EMIS 2009/1A2a
1A2b Non-Ferrous Metals
Aluminium second smelter and non-ferrous metal foundries
Other sources in 1A2b
Bottom-up Top-down
EMIS 2009/1A2b
1A2c Chemicals Top-down
1A2d Pulp, Paper and Print
Biomass (waste derived fuels from paper and pulp) All other fuels
Bottom-up Top-down
Industry data, EMIS 2009/1A2d
1A2e Food Processing, Beverages, and Tobacco Top-down 1A2f Other
Cement/Lime/Glass/… industry
Other sources in 1A2f
Bottom-up Top-down
Industry data, EMIS 2009/1A2f
An oxidation factor of 100% is assumed for all combustion processes and fuels (see sub- section on oxidation factors in the beginning of Section 3.2.2).
Emission factors
Top-down approach
For all sources and gases where a top-down approach is applied, emission factors are the same as for source category 1A1a.
The emission factors for CO2 are country specific and based on measurements and analysis
of fuel samples carried out by the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research EMPA (EMPA 1999; carbon emission factor documented in SFOE 2001, Table 45: p. 51; net calorific values on p. 61. See also Annex A2.1.1).
The activity data on LFO use from the Swiss overall energy statistics (SFOE 2008) includes
also LPG consumption. Therefore the LFO emission factor for CO2 is a mixed emission factor
that results as a weighted average of the LFO emission factor and LPG emission factor as in 1A1a (See Section 3.2.2 a).
The coal emission factor for CO2 is the emission factor of hard coal. Unlike in previous
submissions, a mixed emission factor resulting from a weighted average of hard coal and lignite is only applied to cement production in category 1A2f, because lignite consumption is accounted for exclusively in this activity (see below, bottom-up approach). For net calorific values see Annex A2.1.1.
Emission factors for CH4, NOx, CO and NMVOC are country specific based on
comprehensive life cycle analysis of industrial boilers, documented in SAEFL 2000 (pp. 14-
27). For NOx emission factors, expert judgement has been used to estimate the fraction of
Energy 15 April 2009
have been used. NOx, CO, NMVOC and SO2 implied emission factors for each of the
categories (see Table 3-15) were revised to have a more coherent allocation of emissions to fuel use in different processes.
All emission factors for biomass are based on SAEFL 2000 (pp. 26ff).
Since the fraction of stationary engines in total fuel consumption is rather small, emission