The public domain program Fred Fraction was selected as it was suitable for use with grade-eight (first-year Australian high-school) students. As well, it dealt with the same topic, namely fractions, as the Darts program used by Malone in his study, albeit in a different manner. The motivational effect of the material itself could then be reasonably assumed to be similar. In order to determine the cumulative effects of motivational elements,
Fred Fraction was adapted to fit the following six conditions in order to partly replicate the conditions used by [Malone, 1984]:
Version 1: No feedback: this version consisted of a series of operations with fractions (worksheet style); Version 2: Scoring: this version was in the same format as Version 1 with the addition of an end-of-session
score that could be obtained by pressing the "escape" button;
Version 3: Performance feedback: this version was in the same format as Version 2 with the addition of a comment: "Well done your answer is correct." or "Your answer is incorrect." after each response; Version 4: Constructive feedback: this version was in the same format as Version 3 with the addition of a
comment: "Your answer is too high." or "Your answer is too low.";
Version 5: Graphics: this version was in the same format as Version 4 with the addition of a graphical representation (blocks) of the fractions to provide an intrinsic fantasy element; and
Version 6: Music: this version was in the same format as Version 5 with the addition of music to provide an intrinsic motivational curiosity element (high-pitched music if the answer was correct and low- pitched music if the answer was incorrect).
For each version mentioned above, routines for scoring, performance feedback, constructive feedback, graphics and sound were progressively called upon.
Sixty-eight thirteen to fourteen year old students from two randomly selected mixed-ability grade-eight classes took part in the experiment. This convenience sample was assumed random as the allocative model used by the school to form classes at this level attempted to achieve, as much as possible an even mix of ability and socio- economic level in each class as possible. Individual students were randomly assigned to one of the six versions of the treatment program Fred Fraction together with a control program called Drill and Practice. The control program Drill and Practice consisted of a series of whole-number and fraction drill-and-practice calculations and possessed score and performance feedback elements. Fred Fraction and Drill and Practice were of comparable difficulty levels.
The students were allocated one thirty-minute session and given the freedom to work with the two pieces of software alternating from one to the other as they so desired. In order to determine the time spent playing each game, the students recorded the time when they started and stopped playing each game. On the completion of the individual sessions each student was asked the following questions: "How would you rate Fred Fraction on a scale from 1 to 5?" and "Which game did you prefer?".
These data generated the three variables Time Spent (min), Liking (1-5), and Preference (0-1) which were used in later analyses. While the dependent variable Liking was ordinal, an approximation of continuity was assumed in this case to compare ANOVA results with those of [Malone, 1984]. An approximation of continuity was not assumed for the variable Preference as it was dichotomous. Two-factor ANOVAs were generated to answer the following research questions:
(i) Is the main effect for Version Number significant for each of the dependent variables Time Spent and Liking?
(ii) Is the main effect for Gender significant for each of the same two dependent variables?
(iii) Is there a significant interaction between Version Number and Gender for each of the two dependent variables?
An additional research aim was to determine the strength of the relationship between the three variables, Time Spent, Liking and Preference as measured by the Pearson r, in order to determine to what extent the three variables were associated. It was an assumption of this study, and that of [Malone, 1984], that these three variables provided reasonable indicators of students' motivation to use the software.
Results
The frequencies and means are displayed for the independent variables in each cell with respect to each of the dependent variables Time Spent [Tab. 1] and Liking [Tab. 2].
Version V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 Count(N=) Males 5 6 6 6 5 6 Females 5 5 8 5 5 6 Total 10 11 14 11 10 12 Means(min) Males 15.0 18.8 14.0 20.2 22.8 25.7 Females 10.4 11.4 20.4 21.0 22.0 25.5 Overall 12.7 15.5 17.6 20.6 22.4 25.6
Table 1: Frequencies and means based on the dependent variable Time Spent.
Version V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 Count(N=) Males 5 6 6 6 5 6 Females 5 5 8 5 5 6 Total 10 11 14 11 10 12 Means(min) Males 2.20 2.83 2.00 3.17 3.80 3.83 Females 2.40 2.80 3.63 2.80 3.60 4.33 Overall 2.30 2.82 2.93 3.00 3.70 4.08
The results from Tables 1 and Table 2 indicate that for both dependent variables there was an apparent increase in the overall means from version number one to version number six, that is, as the number of motivational elements increased so did the motivation to play the game as indicated by the two measures used. This is not the case for the individual means for males and females where for both dependent variables, there appeared to be gender differences in interest between versions two and three of the program, that is, in performance feedback. Differences between the means, as determined from the ANOVA will now be considered.
The results of the two-factor ANOVA for the independent variables Version Number and Gender and the dependent variable Time Spent indicated that the main effect of Version Number was significant (F = 8.259 for
p < 0.0001 and df = 5), whereas there was neither a significant effect for Gender nor for the interaction between Version Number and Gender, although this interaction approached significance at p = 0.066. A Fisher PLSD post-hoc test, generated from a further one-factor (Version Number) ANOVA, indicated significance at p < 0.05 between the means of version numbers: 1 & 3, 1 & 4, 1 & 5, 1 & 6; 2 & 4, 2 & 5, 2 & 6; 3 & 6; and 4 & 6. Hence, no adjacent versions gave rise to significant increases in interest.
The two-factor ANOVA for the independent variables Version Number and Gender and the dependent variable Liking indicated that the main effect for Version Number was significant (F = 6.676 for p < 0.0001 and df = 5) and that there was neither a significant effect for Gender nor for the interaction between Version Number and Gender, although the interaction approached significance at p = 0.055. A Fisher PLSD post-hoc test generated from a further one-factor (Version Number) ANOVA indicated significance at p < 0.05 between the means of version numbers: 1 & 5, 1 & 6; 2 & 5, 2 & 6; 3 & 5, 3 & 6; 4 & 6; 5 & 6. Hence, only one adjacent pair of means gave rise to a significant increase in interest, namely version five with graphics and version six with music added.
Calculation of Pearson correlation coefficients indicated significant relationships between all three combinations of the dependent variables Time Spent, Liking and Preference for p < 0.01. Also, as there was no significant interaction between Version Number and Gender in the two-factor ANOVA reported above, separate analyses for boys and girls were not carried out. Hence, comparison with the separate gender analyses carried out in the Malone study was not feasible.
Discussion
The statistical analysis for the main effect of Gender showed no gender differences with respect to Time Spent across all versions of Fred Fraction, but did show significant differences in interest for various versions irrespective of gender, since the main effect for Version Number was strongly significant for both dependent variables used. The results from the Fisher post-hoc tests indicated that boys and girls together showed significantly greater interest in the intrinsic elements fantasy (graphics, version five) and curiosity (music, version six) compared to the elements used in versions 1-3. The results also suggest that while there was no significant difference for boys and girls taken together when an end-of session score was added to the first version, the further addition of performance feedback had a significant effect on Time Spent. This differed somewhat from the [Malone, 1984] study where the version with performance feedback was not significantly more interesting for either girls or boys, taken separately, than the adjacent version without this element. The finding that the interaction between Version Number and Gender approached significance for both dependent variables used provides limited evidence in the present study for a difference in interest between boys and girls in performance feedback, with the boys being less interested in this feature than the girls. The [Malone, 1984] research using the Darts program showed a strong interaction between Version and Gender, and that boys preferred the intrinsic fantasy element (graphics) compared to girls. The present research does not support his findings. Suggested reasons for these differences are outlined below.
Firstly, Malone's intrinsic element consisted of arrows popping balloons on a number line if the correct answer was given. The intrinsic element in the present research was a graphic representation of the fraction if the correct answer was given. This graphical element appeared above the symbolic expression and was more removed and hence less 'intrinsic' to the concept than the [Malone, 1984] representation. There is no evidence from the present study as to the extent to which the students chose to refer to this graphic. Also, on comparison of the graphical elements in the two studies, Malone's intrinsic graphical element possessed a higher level of aggression, namely the arrow bursting the balloon. This may have confounded the results in his study as the males may have been attracted to more aggressive element.
Secondly, Malone's research was conducted with two twenty-minute sessions whereas this research, by force of circumstance, was conducted using one thirty-minute session. The students involved in this research may have distributed their time differently if they had been given an interval whereby they were able to think about their liking and preference. This may have affected the time spent playing Fred Fraction in the second twenty-minute session.
Research by [Wood, 1990] relating to young children with disabilities did not focus upon gender differences with regard to intrinsic elements. She did find, however, that a prominent feature of intrinsically motivating software was fantasy, multiple-level goals and the opportunity for children to make decisions. The present research does support Wood's findings in relation to fantasy in that the fantasy element for this research was contained in version five (intrinsic graphic), the mean for which was significantly greater than those of versions 1-2 for Time Spent and for those of versions 1-3 for Liking. The significant differences between the mean scores also provided evidence for increased motivation between versions 1-4 (Time Spent) and version six, and versions 1-5 (Liking) compared to version six. Hence the music (sensory curiosity) element also appeared to have a significant effect on interest.
The fact that there was only one significant increase in interest, as measured by Time Spent and Liking, for all of the ten adjacent pairs studied suggests that, if students are going to spend time using and enjoying microcomputer software, the design of such software should include a variety of interest measures.
The evidence from this study also suggests that graphical representation, together with aural feedback, will provide a more motivating and interesting mathematical learning environment for individualised learning. However, because this current research was conducted with drill-and-practice software, the discussion must necessarily be restricted to this software type. Also, while the research suggests a cumulative effect produced by the motivational elements used, increased sample size in future studies of this type may provide a clearer view of this effect and also help to determine whether a gender difference exists for performance feedback.
[Sanders, 1984] claimed that girls both liked music videos and liked to know how they perform to a greater extent to that for boys. While there was no significant interaction with respect to gender for the performance feedback and music versions for the sample of students involved in the present study, there was limited evidence that performance feedback was favoured by the girls.
Conclusion
This study examined the effects of motivational elements in a mathematical drill-and-practice learning environment. The key result of the experiment was that students are intrinsically motivated by curiosity and fantasy in drill-and-practice software and that when students are motivated by a piece of software, they are content to spend time with it, enjoy it and prefer it to other software. The study has also shown that students are motivated to a lesser extent by performance feedback and constructive feedback.
In contrast to the [Malone, 1984] research, this work has not generated any evidence to support the argument that gender differences exist with respect to motivational elements, although it does point to a possible difference in interest in performance-feedback elements. The research does, however, strengthen Malone's argument that in order to make learning environments more motivating, the use of captivating microcomputer software, which includes fantasy and curiosity elements, should be encouraged.
The research also goes some way in confirming Malone's claim that "... varying specific features in a set of nearly isomorphic games seems to be a useful way of empirically studying intrinsic motivation". Future research may extend the conditions used in this study to include, for example, variable levels of difficulty and interpersonal competitiveness and co-operation. Also, extending the study of motivational elements beyond drill-and-practice software to other software types may help to inform the software evaluation process by better enabling educators to more accurately predict the intrinsically-motivating potential of new software on the market.
References
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[Piaget, 1951]. Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams, and imitation in childhood. New York: W.W. Norton.
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