Methods of the model

The cognitive apprenticeship model is divided into six main teaching methods which are divided into three major classes of skills: cognitive skills covered in the modelling, coaching and scaffolding methods, development of problem-solving skills addressed in the articulation and reflection methods and autonomy which is encouraged in the exploration method (Collins et al. 1989). A detailed explanation of activity for each method is given below:

(i) Modelling: In modelling the expert performs a skills task while the student observes the practice involved. The modelling can belong to two strategies: behavioural and cognitive modelling. In behavioural modelling a demonstration of how the task is to be performed is given by the instructor whereas in cognitive modelling the instructor articulates the reasoning that the learner should use in performing the task. Current teaching practice for programming can make use of both modelling strategies with behavioural modelling giving way to cognitive modelling as time and student competences progress. When the teacher articulates their reasoning it is to indicate to the learner what factors are used to guide the decision making during the task. When the learner articulates their reasoning they explain their understanding of the task and their approach to solving the problem.

(ii) Coaching: For this step the expert observes the learner performing the skill and offers hints, feedback, and reminders to help them. In addition, if necessary, extra support may be provided by scaffolding, remodelling and goal setting for subtasks. The learner would be expected to crudely follow the steps learned in the

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modelling phase and, through repetition with support at each stage, to refine their performance and/or their outcomes. The role of the coach is inexact and can be complex but they would be expected to provide motivation, analyse the performance, provide feedback and promote reflection on the task. As coaching has a social context the learner would be expected to seek help or confirm their approach at various times and would also expect the unsolicited help and encouragement from the teacher. The context of the coaching is necessarily driven by the performance of the learner and the literature outlines a number of strategies for effective coaching (Laffey et al. 1998). These include the ability to relate the importance of aspects of the task to the learner and to provide reasons for the learner to remain engaged with the task. The coach should work to boost the learner’s confidence as they progress. Motivational prompts that are important at the beginning of the coaching can be faded as progress is made.

(iii) Scaffolding: For this step activities are organised at the level of the learner’s current skills to encourage the learner to progress to subsequent levels where the amount of support is withdrawn. This will be provided by the structure of the course with a series of practical exercises, tutorials and assignments. The structuring of the tasks with increasing levels of complexity allows the student to be able to build on previous lessons and incorporate new knowledge into what has already been learned. The fading of support from the teacher is to encourage the student, during coaching, to tackle tasks using their own resources. The method of the fading could take two formats, either through the quantity of the support with changes in frequency or proactive offers of help, or through a change to the quality of the help using more general guidance or Socratic help to encourage the learner’s reasoning.

(iv) Articulation: The use of articulation requires the problem solver to explicitly express their reasoning and understanding of the process at the time they are performing the task and while being observed. As a teaching tool articulation should provide additional insight into the expert’s view of the domain. The teacher can be made aware of

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errors, misunderstandings and incorrect assumptions in the student’s model of the domain and offer coaching support. Articulation can take three forms with the aim of encouraging the student to self-monitor and to explore the strategies and actions employed: 1) inquiry teaching where the teacher asks the student to answer questions that articulate and refine their theories about the domain’s knowledge, 2) articulate thoughts: the teacher can also ask the learner to explain their reasoning as they problem solve and 3) critique or monitor peers in cooperative tasks.

(v) Reflection: In reflection the learner is encouraged to critically evaluate their own performance against that of the experts. Expert practitioners tend to have expectations of the results of various activities in a task and can adjust actions to improve outcomes. Learners need to be able to not only apply similar actions, but also to understand if the expectation has been met or how to recover if it has not. There are various suggested techniques for doing this that can recreate the expert’s post-mortem of the processes involved and their effects on the problem-solving task. Reflection also allows for the use of audiovisual recording tools.

(vi) Exploration: For this attribute the student is encouraged to pursue general goals to tackle problems independently. Exploration requires the questions posed to be made challenging and interesting enough to encourage the student’s participation. The major exploration technique is for the teacher to set general goals for the student but to encourage them to concentrate on specific sub goals. The method even allows students to refine the general goals in order to pursue areas of particular interest.